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1450 – 1750 CE OVERVIEW
AP WORLD HISTORY HOMEPAGE
The Aztec Empire was an advanced civilization in the Americas. While the Aztecs had been living in Tenochtitlan since the 1200s, the Aztec Empire did not begin until 1428, when they formed the Triple Alliance with two other cities. Check out the Google Slides to learn more about the Aztec Empire. I also have information on the Aztec Empire in State Building in the Americas for AP World History.
The Beginning
The Aztecs, or Mexica, originated from a place called Aztlan, although the exact location of Aztlan is a subject of debate among historians. Aztlan is often described in Aztec legends as a mythical ancestral homeland, and its precise location remains uncertain. The Aztecs arrived in the central region of Mexico in the mid-1200s. Legend has it that they were guided by their god Huitzilopochtli to find a new homeland. They embarked on a long journey and eventually settled on an island in Lake Texcoco. Here, they began the construction of a magnificent city, Tenochtitlán. The city was characterized by intricate canals, causeways, and stunning architecture. It became the capital of the Aztec Empire and a center of culture, trade, and power.
Why the Aztecs Left Aztlan
The exact reasons for the Aztecs’ departure from Aztlan, their supposed mythical ancestral homeland, are not definitively documented in historical records. Instead, this migration story is largely preserved through Aztec legends and oral tradition.
Push Factors: It is suggested that the Aztecs may have faced challenges and hardships in Aztlan, such as resource scarcity, conflicts with neighboring groups, or environmental issues. These difficulties may have served as push factors, encouraging the Aztecs to seek a new, more hospitable homeland.
Religious Vision: According to Aztec mythology, their god Huitzilopochtli appeared to the Aztec leaders and instructed them to embark on a journey to find a new home. This religious vision played a significant role in their decision to leave Aztlan and search for the place where they would eventually build Tenochtitlán.
Desire for Prosperity: The Aztecs may have been motivated by the hope of finding a more prosperous and fertile land that would offer better opportunities for their people.
Quest for Identity: Migration was a common theme in Mesoamerican history, and many indigenous groups undertook journeys to find their own homeland. For the Aztecs, this migration may have been part of their broader quest to establish their unique identity and civilization.
The Triple Alliance
The Aztec Empire, also known as the Triple Alliance, began its expansion in the early 15th century. The Triple Alliance was composed of three city-states: Tenochtitlán, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. Tenochtitlán, located on an island in Lake Texcoco, emerged as the most prominent and powerful member of the alliance, eventually becoming the capital of the Aztec Empire.
Tenochtitlán: The most prominent and powerful of the three, Tenochtitlán was located on an island in Lake Texcoco. It eventually became the capital of the Aztec Empire.
Texcoco: Located on the eastern shore of Lake Texcoco, Texcoco was one of the oldest and most culturally advanced cities in the region. It was known for its agricultural prowess and contributions to the alliance’s economy.
Tlacopan: Also known as Tlacopan, this city was located to the west of Lake Texcoco. It was the smallest of the three members but played a significant role in the alliance.
Aztec Social Structure
The Aztec Empire had a structured social hierarchy with distinct social classes.
Emperor and Nobility (Noble Class): At the top of the social hierarchy were the emperor and the nobility. The emperor held the highest authority and was considered divine. The nobility included high-ranking officials, military leaders, and priests. They enjoyed privileges and played a crucial role in governance and religious ceremonies.
Commoners (Commoner Class): The commoners constituted the majority of the population and were further divided into subgroups:
- Pipiltin: This was the upper class of commoners, often referred to as the “nobility of commoners.” They included landowners, merchants, and skilled artisans. They were typically wealthier and held positions of influence in society.
- Macehualtin: The commoners in this class were primarily farmers, laborers, and craftsmen. They worked the land and contributed to the agricultural and economic aspects of the empire.
Slaves (Servant Class): Slavery was a part of Aztec society. Slaves were typically individuals who had been captured in warfare, convicted of crimes, or had fallen into debt. They had limited rights and could be bought, sold, or sacrificed by their owners.
Specialist Groups: Within Aztec society, there were specialized groups with unique roles, such as:
- Warriors (Eagle and Jaguar Knights): These elite warriors were highly respected and played a crucial role in military campaigns.
- Priests: The religious class of priests held significant influence in Aztec society and played a central role in conducting religious ceremonies and rituals.
- Judges: Responsible for maintaining order and administering justice in the empire.
Women: Women had defined roles within the Aztec society, primarily focused on household responsibilities and child-rearing. While most women did not engage in public life or politics, some did participate in trade and craftwork. A few women even became priestesses.
Calpulli: These were semi-autonomous neighborhoods or clans that had their own social structure, including leaders and commoners.
The Aztec social hierarchy was influenced by notions of nobility, warrior prowess, and religious significance. The empire was structured around a theocratic rule, with religious practices and ceremonies intertwined with everyday life and governance.
Eagle Knights and Jaguar Knights
The Aztec Empire was known for its formidable military, and at the heart of its martial prowess were two elite warrior groups: the Eagle Knights and the Jaguar Knights. These distinguished orders were among the most respected and feared fighters in the empire.
The Eagle Knights were easily recognizable by their striking uniforms adorned with eagle feathers, symbolizing the noble and elevated status they held in Aztec society. These skilled warriors were agile and swift, often serving as scouts and shock troops during battles. Their agility, keen eyesight, and ability to soar like eagles made them invaluable on the battlefield.
The Jaguar Knights, on the other hand, wore outfits resembling the fierce jaguar, the powerful apex predator of the jungle. Their attire included jaguar pelts, which instilled fear in their enemies. These warriors were known for their strength, ferocity, and prowess in close combat. They were the elite force that could break enemy lines and ensure victory in hand-to-hand combat.
Both the Eagle and Jaguar Knights were held in high regard and played vital roles in Aztec warfare and society. Their bravery and dedication were rewarded with prestige and privileges, reflecting the significance of martial skill and honor in the Aztec culture. These elite warriors exemplified the strength and valor of the Aztec Empire, leaving a lasting legacy in the history of Mesoamerica.
Calpulli
The Aztec calpulli was a fundamental social and political unit in Aztec society, especially during the height of the Aztec Empire in the 15th and early 16th centuries. The term “calpulli” can be translated as “big house” or “neighborhood” in Nahuatl, the Aztec language. Calpullis were a crucial aspect of Aztec governance and community organization.
Local Governance: Calpullis were primarily local administrative units, akin to neighborhoods or small communities. Each calpulli was responsible for governing its own affairs, including issues related to land, resources, and local justice.
Land Ownership: Calpullis collectively owned and managed land and resources within their territories. This land was used for agriculture, and the produce was typically distributed among the members of the calpulli.
Tribute Collection: Calpullis were responsible for collecting tribute, or taxes, from their members to contribute to the central government. This tribute often included agricultural products, textiles, and other goods.
Social and Cultural Functions: Calpullis played a role in preserving and transmitting cultural traditions, customs, and knowledge within the community. They often organized religious ceremonies, festivals, and other communal activities within the calpulli.
Social Structure: Calpullis were organized hierarchically. Each calpulli had a leader, known as the “calpullec,” who represented the group in dealings with the central government. Calpullis were also divided into smaller kinship groups.
Economic Activities: In addition to agriculture, calpullis engaged in various economic activities, including craft production and trade. They often specialized in specific trades or crafts.
Community and Solidarity: Calpullis fostered a sense of community and solidarity among their members. People in the same calpulli shared common social bonds, and mutual support was a defining feature of these groups.
Relevance in Aztec Hierarchy: Calpullis existed within a hierarchical structure. At the top of the hierarchy was the central government of the Aztec Empire, led by the emperor. Below the central government were regional and provincial levels of governance, with calpullis forming the grassroots level of administration.
Kinship Ties: Many calpullis were based on kinship ties, with extended families forming the core of these communities. This allowed for close social and familial connections within the calpulli.
The Spread of the Aztec Empire
The Aztecs rapidly expanded their territory through a combination of military conquest and political alliances. Their militaristic strength and well-organized society allowed them to dominate neighboring city-states and demand tribute from subject peoples. The tribute system brought wealth, resources, and labor to Tenochtitlán, fueling its growth.
Aztec Agriculture
Aztec farming was a sophisticated and essential aspect of their civilization, providing the means to feed their rapidly growing population. Despite the challenging environment of the elevated valley where they settled, the Aztecs developed innovative agricultural techniques to support their society.
Chinampas: The Aztecs are renowned for their use of chinampas, artificial island gardens built in the shallow waters of Lake Texcoco. These rectangular plots were formed by dredging nutrient-rich mud from the lake bottom and piling it into walled gardens. Chinampas were incredibly fertile and allowed for year-round cultivation of crops like maize, beans, squash, and various vegetables.
Crop Diversity: Maize, or corn, was the staple crop of the Aztecs and a dietary cornerstone. In addition to maize, they cultivated a wide variety of crops, including beans, squash, tomatoes, peppers, and amaranth. This diversity ensured a balanced and nutritious diet.
Terrace Farming: In the hilly areas surrounding the valley, the Aztecs constructed terraced fields. These stepped plots minimized erosion, conserved water, and maximized arable land for farming.
Aqua-Culture: The Aztecs bred fish and amphibians in their chinampas and other water bodies, enhancing their diet with a source of protein.
Irrigation Systems: The Aztecs developed a complex system of canals and dikes to manage water levels in the chinampas and surrounding fields. They also collected rainwater for irrigation during the dry season.
Crop Rotation: Crop rotation and the practice of leaving certain fields fallow helped maintain soil fertility.
Use of Compost: The Aztecs created compost from organic waste materials, enriching the soil in their chinampas and fields.
Labor and Community Efforts: Farming was a communal effort, and labor was divided among households. The Aztecs had a strong sense of collective responsibility for agricultural work.
Chinampas
Chinampas are a unique Mesoamerican agricultural system that originated with the Aztecs in ancient Mexico. They are artificial islands or raised fields created in shallow lake beds, primarily in the region of the Valley of Mexico. Chinampas are constructed by dredging nutrient-rich mud and aquatic vegetation from the lake bottom to build up a fertile and productive growing area.
Artificial Islands: Chinampas consist of rectangular or square plots of arable land, separated by canals. These plots are created by weaving together sticks and reeds, which are then layered with mud and organic material.
Irrigation: The canals between chinampas provide a constant source of water for irrigation, allowing for year-round cultivation. This is particularly important in regions with a distinct dry and wet season.
Fertility: The mud and organic matter dredged from the lake bed are highly fertile, making chinampas incredibly productive for agriculture. Crops like maize, beans, squash, and various vegetables could be grown on these fields.
Sustainability: Chinampas are often cited as an early example of sustainable agriculture. They make efficient use of limited land resources and minimize soil erosion. Additionally, the aquatic environment of the canals provides a habitat for fish and waterfowl, enhancing biodiversity.
Historical Significance: Chinampas were a fundamental part of Aztec agriculture, providing food for the growing population of the capital city of Tenochtitlan and its surroundings. The system played a significant role in the success and wealth of the Aztec Empire.
Aztec Education
Noble Education: The highest level of education was reserved for the nobility, the upper echelons of Aztec society. Noble children received a comprehensive education that included training in history, astronomy, theology, art, and combat skills. This education was typically provided by tutors and elders within families.
Commoner Education: Commoner children received a more practical education, which focused on the skills and knowledge needed for their roles in society. This education often included learning essential trades, agricultural techniques, and skills for everyday life.
Priestly Education: The Aztecs had a specialized class of priests who received a rigorous religious education. They were trained in Aztec religious beliefs, rituals, and the calendar system, which played a central role in religious ceremonies.
Calpulli Education: The calpulli was a social and political unit in Aztec society. Some education took place within the calpulli, where individuals learned about community customs, traditions, and responsibilities.
Oral Tradition: Much of Aztec knowledge and history was passed down through oral tradition. Elders and community members were responsible for teaching the next generation through storytelling, recitation, and oral histories.
Aztec Architecture
Aztec architecture was remarkable for its grandeur and ingenuity, reflecting the sophistication of the Aztec civilization. Here are some key features and examples of Aztec architecture:
Temples: Temples were the most prominent architectural structures in Aztec cities. The Templo Mayor in the heart of Tenochtitlán (present-day Mexico City) was the primary religious center. It consisted of two massive pyramids, one dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and the other to Tlaloc, the god of rain. These temples were often rebuilt on top of existing ones, creating impressive layered structures.
Ball Courts: The Aztecs played a traditional Mesoamerican ballgame called “tlachtli.” Ball courts were large, rectangular structures with sloping walls and stone rings for the ball to pass through. The game held religious significance, and the courts were often located near temples.
Palaces and Government Buildings: The Aztecs built palaces and government structures using local materials like adobe, stone, and wood. These buildings featured elaborate, carved stone facades, depicting important mythological and historical events.
Aqueducts and Canals: Due to the challenging geography of the valley where they settled, the Aztecs constructed aqueducts and canals to bring fresh water to their cities and chinampas (floating gardens). These engineering marvels helped support the population and agricultural activities.
Houses: Commoner houses were generally constructed with adobe bricks or wood, featuring thatched roofs. They were often arranged in a grid pattern and built around central courtyards.
Causeways: The Aztecs connected their cities, which were located on islands in Lake Texcoco, with raised causeways. These elevated roadways allowed for the movement of people and goods and served as defensive structures.
Terrace Farming: In the hilly areas surrounding the valley, the Aztecs used terraces for agriculture. These stepped farming plots helped maximize arable land and minimize soil erosion.
Marketplaces: Marketplaces, known as “tianquiz(t)li,” were integral to Aztec cities. They featured open-air stalls and were important hubs for trade and commerce.
Sculpture: Aztec architecture often incorporated intricate stone carvings and sculptures, depicting gods, mythical creatures, and historical events. These adorned the facades of temples and palaces.
The Pyramid of the Sun
The Pyramid of the Sun is one of the most iconic and significant structures in Mesoamerican archaeology. Located at the ancient city of Teotihuacan in present-day Mexico, this colossal pyramid stands as a testament to the architectural and engineering prowess of the ancient Mesoamerican civilization. The Pyramid of the Sun is the third-largest pyramid in the world, towering at approximately 216 feet in height. It is composed of a series of stepped layers, leading to a flat, rectangular platform at the top.
Aztec Religion
Aztec religion was a complex and intricate system that played a central role in the daily life and culture of the Aztec people.
Polytheism: The Aztecs were polytheistic, meaning they worshiped a pantheon of gods and goddesses. These deities represented various aspects of life, nature, and the cosmos. Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and Tlaloc, the god of rain, were among the most significant.
Cosmic Beliefs: The Aztecs believed in a cyclical view of the universe. They thought that the world had been created and destroyed several times, and they were living in the era of the fifth sun. These beliefs influenced their religious practices and rituals.
Human Sacrifice: Human sacrifice was a prominent feature of Aztec religious ceremonies. They believed that offering human lives to the gods was necessary to maintain the cosmic balance and ensure the well-being of their society. Captives of war and other individuals were often sacrificed.
Temples and Rituals: Aztec cities had grand temples, with the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán being the most famous. These temples were dedicated to specific deities and served as the focal points for religious ceremonies and rituals. Priests played a crucial role in conducting these ceremonies, which included offerings, dances, and music.
Calendar and Astronomy: The Aztecs had a sophisticated calendar system and were skilled astronomers. They believed that celestial events and the movements of celestial bodies had a profound influence on human affairs and religious ceremonies.
Mythology: Aztec religion had a rich mythology filled with stories about the creation of the world, gods, and legendary heroes. These myths helped explain the natural world and their place in it.
Sacred Sites: Natural landmarks, such as caves, mountains, and springs, were considered sacred and associated with specific deities. Pilgrimages to these sites were an integral part of Aztec religious life.
Divination: The Aztecs practiced divination, which involved interpreting signs and omens to make decisions and predict the future. They used various methods, such as reading the entrails of sacrificed animals.
Ancestor Veneration: Ancestor worship was another aspect of Aztec religion. They believed that deceased family members continued to play a role in their lives and could intercede with the gods on their behalf.
Human Sacrifices
Human sacrifices were a prominent and deeply ritualistic aspect of Aztec culture and religion. The Aztecs believed that offering human lives to their gods was necessary to ensure the continuity of the world, fertility of the land, and victory in battle. The victims of these sacrifices were often prisoners of war or individuals from conquered regions. The most significant and well-documented site for these rituals was the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital.
The process of human sacrifice involved elaborate ceremonies and rituals. The victims were typically led to the top of the temple, where priests would perform the sacrifices. Common methods included cutting out the heart, beheading, or flaying the victim. The removal of the heart was particularly important, as it was believed to be the source of life and energy. The sacrificed individuals were often adorned with specific attire and symbols associated with deities, emphasizing their role in appeasing the gods.
While human sacrifice remains a challenging and controversial aspect of Aztec civilization, it is essential to consider it within the context of their religious beliefs and practices. The Aztecs viewed these offerings as vital for maintaining cosmic balance, and they played a significant role in the spiritual life of the society.
Women in Aztec Society
Women in Aztec society were primarily responsible for managing households, which included tasks like cooking, child-rearing, and weaving. Women also participated in agricultural activities, tending to crops and maintaining the innovative chinampas or floating gardens. Their involvement in trade and market activities was significant, as they exchanged goods and produce. Women had religious roles too, often serving as priestesses in ceremonies dedicated to goddesses like Coatlicue. Women could inherit land, but they had far fewer rights than men in the patriarchal society.
Moctezuma II
Moctezuma II, also spelled Montezuma, was a significant figure in the history of the Aztec Empire. He ruled as the ninth emperor of the Aztecs from 1502 until 1520, during a crucial and tumultuous period in the empire’s existence. Moctezuma’s reign was marked by both great achievements and challenges.
As emperor, Moctezuma oversaw the empire’s expansion and consolidation, extending Aztec rule over a vast territory in Mesoamerica. His reign was characterized by the imposition of a tribute system on subject peoples, which brought wealth and resources to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán.
However, Moctezuma’s reign also coincided with the arrival of Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, in 1519. Moctezuma’s leadership during the Spanish incursion was marked by indecision and uncertainty. He was taken captive by the Spanish in 1519, a move that further weakened Aztec resistance. His eventual death in 1520, under disputed circumstances, marked a turning point in the Aztec-Spanish conflict.
Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés was the Spanish conquistador who led the expedition to Mexico in the early 16th century, eventually leading to the downfall of the powerful Aztec Empire. In 1519, Cortés and his small army arrived on the coast of Mexico, where they were met with the advanced civilization of the Aztecs, ruled by Moctezuma II. Despite being vastly outnumbered, Cortés and his soldiers, along with alliances formed with other indigenous groups who were opposed to the Aztecs, embarked on a campaign to conquer the empire. Through a combination of superior weaponry, strategic alliances, and the devastating impact of diseases introduced by the Europeans, the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, fell to the Spanish in 1521. This event marked the beginning of Spanish colonial rule in Mexico, significantly altering the course of history in the Americas.
Aztec Empire SPICE-T Chart
Social
Hierarchy: The Aztec society was hierarchical. At the top was the emperor, followed by nobles, priests, and commoners. Slavery was also practiced.
Religion: The Aztecs had a polytheistic religion with gods like Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl. Human sacrifices were a central religious practice.
Family Structure: Aztec families were typically extended, with multiple generations living together. Kinship and family ties were important.
Political
Government: The Aztec Empire was a military empire, ruled by an emperor known as the Huey Tlatoani. The empire was organized into provinces governed by regional leaders.
Tribute System: The Aztecs collected tribute from subject territories, which contributed to their wealth and power. When they conquered an area, the people would have to provide labor and goods to the empire.
Legal System: Laws in Aztec society were based on customary practices, and there were clear legal codes for various offenses.
Interactions with the Environment
Agriculture: The Aztecs practiced advanced agriculture, including the use of chinampas, artificial islands on lake beds, to grow crops like maize and beans.
Engineering: They built complex systems of canals, causeways, and aqueducts to manage water resources and transport goods.
Urban Planning: Tenochtitlan, the capital, was a well-planned city on an island with temples, palaces, and markets. The city was interconnected by causeways.
Culture
Language: The Aztecs spoke Nahuatl. Their writing system included pictograms and symbols.
Art and Architecture: Aztecs were known for their intricate art, including codices (books), pottery, and sculptures. Their architecture featured step pyramids and temples.
Calendar: The Aztecs had a complex calendar system, including a 260-day ritual calendar and a 365-day solar calendar.
Religion: Aztec religion was polytheistic, with many gods and goddesses. Central to their belief system was the need to appease these deities through rituals and human sacrifices to maintain cosmic balance and ensure the well-being of their society.
Economics
Trade: The Aztecs engaged in long-distance trade, including cacao beans and obsidian, using a barter system. They had a market economy with the Tlatelolco market in Tenochtitlan being one of the largest.
Tribute: Tribute from subject regions, including goods and labor, contributed to the Aztec economy.
Agriculture: Agriculture was a cornerstone of the economy, with the chinampas system allowing for the cultivation of crops.
Technology
Astronomy: Aztecs had an understanding of astronomy and a calendar system. They tracked celestial events, such as solar eclipses.
Metallurgy: They worked with various metals, including gold and silver, to create ornaments and jewelry.
Medicine: Aztecs had an understanding of herbal medicine and practiced surgery, including trepanation.
Math: The Aztecs had a shell-like symbol, which represented zero or an empty space in their numerical notation.
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