This article serves as an essential resource for AP World History students to understand the key facts and major developments of World War I. From exploring the causes of the world’s first global conflict to examining the impact of the war on different countries, we’ll provide comprehensive information slides and explainers to help students gain a better grasp of the conflict and its lasting effects. We’ll also explore the individuals and organizations that played a role in the war and how their efforts changed the trajectory of the conflict. With this article, students will come away with a well-rounded, thorough understanding of World War I and its substantial consequences.
The Triple Alliance
Otto von Bismarck, the architect of German unification in the late 19th century, orchestrated the creation of the Triple Alliance in 1882. This alliance brought together Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy and was motivated by a combination of strategic, diplomatic, and geopolitical considerations. Bismarck aimed to safeguard Germany’s newly established position in Europe by fostering a network of alliances. The primary objective was to isolate France, which harbored resentment over its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) and the subsequent loss of Alsace-Lorraine, a region in the northeast of France, to Germany. By forming the Triple Alliance, Bismarck sought to neutralize potential threats from France and maintain a balance of power on the continent. Additionally, the alliance with Austria-Hungary served to solidify Germany’s position in Central Europe. Italy’s inclusion was driven by its desire for protection against potential French aggression and territorial aspirations in the Adriatic. While the Triple Alliance provided a degree of stability in the short term, the shifting geopolitical landscape and the dismissal of Bismarck by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890 eventually led to the alliance’s unraveling, contributing to the complex alliances that characterized the prelude to World War I.
Wilhelm II
Wilhelm II, the last German Emperor and King of Prussia, ruled from 1888 to 1918 and played a significant role in shaping the course of European history during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known for his assertive and ambitious foreign policy, Wilhelm II dismissed the skilled statesman Otto von Bismarck in 1890, which marked a departure from the diplomatic strategies that had maintained stability in Europe. His aggressive pursuit of a strong naval fleet and expansionist ambitions contributed to the arms race and heightened tensions among European powers, ultimately contributing to the complex alliances that led to World War I. Wilhelm II’s leadership during the war was marked by military setbacks, economic challenges, and growing discontent among the German population. In the aftermath of Germany’s defeat, Wilhelm II abdicated in 1918, marking the end of the German monarchy. His reign is a critical point of analysis in AP World History, illustrating the interconnectedness of political decisions, militarization, and the complex web of alliances that precipitated a global conflict.
Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck, a towering figure in 19th-century European history, was a master strategist and statesman whose political acumen significantly shaped the course of German unification. Serving as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1862 to 1890, Bismarck employed a policy of Realpolitik, a pragmatic approach to politics that prioritized practical considerations over ideological principles.
Bismarck skillfully orchestrated a series of wars, including the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, to achieve the long-sought goal of German unity. In 1871, under Bismarck’s guidance, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned Emperor of the newly unified German Empire. Bismarck’s domestic policies aimed at consolidating imperial authority, balancing conservative and liberal interests through social reforms, and isolating potential adversaries. However, his dismissal by Emperor Wilhelm II in 1890 marked the end of his political career. Otto von Bismarck’s legacy endures as the “Iron Chancellor” and architect of modern Germany, leaving an indelible mark on the nation’s history and the broader geopolitical landscape of 19th-century Europe.
An Alliance Between France and Russia
The Franco-Russian Alliance, formed in 1894, was driven by mutual concerns and geopolitical dynamics in the lead-up to World War I. France, resentful of its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, sought to counterbalance the growing power of Germany. Russia, facing diplomatic isolation, found in France a reliable partner. The alliance aimed to strengthen both nations against potential aggression and alter the European balance of power. This strategic alignment played a pivotal role in the complex network of alliances that characterized the prelude to World War I, illustrating how diplomatic maneuvers shaped the trajectory of global conflict.
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, officially known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a dual monarchy that existed from 1867 to 1918 in Central Europe. This multinational state was composed of two separate entities, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, each with its own government and institutions. The creation of Austria-Hungary resulted from the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which sought to address the nationalist aspirations and demands for autonomy within the empire.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was characterized by its diverse population, comprising various ethnic groups such as Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ukrainians, Croats, Serbs, and others. The dual monarchy structure attempted to balance the interests of the German-speaking Austrians and the Magyar-speaking Hungarians.
However, the empire faced persistent challenges due to the nationalist aspirations of its diverse ethnic groups, contributing to internal tensions. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 in Sarajevo, a city under Austro-Hungarian rule, was a catalyst for the outbreak of World War I. As a member of the Central Powers, Austria-Hungary played a significant role in the conflict but faced internal disintegration due to nationalist movements. After the war, the empire was dissolved, and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) redrew the map of Europe, leading to the creation of several independent nations from the former Austro-Hungarian territories.
The Triple Entente
As the 20th century dawned, Europe witnessed a strategic reshuffling. Concerned by the Triple Alliance formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, France and Russia found themselves in a diplomatic tango. In 1894, they formalized the Franco-Russian Alliance as a response to the perceived threat from the Central Powers. The two nations pledged support against potential aggression, creating a powerful counterbalance. Over time, this alliance expanded to include the United Kingdom, forming the Triple Entente. This straightforward alliance story underscores the pragmatic responses of nations facing shifting power dynamics and sets the stage for the complexities that led to World War I.
The Ottoman Empire
In the lead-up to World War I, a series of geopolitical shifts and nationalist movements in the Balkans reshaped the map of Southeastern Europe as several countries sought to break free from Ottoman rule. The decline of the Ottoman Empire, often referred to as the “Sick Man of Europe,” triggered a wave of nationalistic fervor among various ethnic and religious groups within its territories. Greece, for instance, had secured its independence earlier in the 19th century, gaining recognition in the 1830s. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, other nations followed suit. Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania successfully asserted their independence in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, as confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin. The establishment of the Principality of Albania in 1912 further contributed to the Ottoman Empire’s diminishing control. These independence movements, fueled by a desire for self-determination and national identity, intensified regional tensions and played a significant role in the complex web of alliances and rivalries that would later contribute to the outbreak of World War I.
The Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s trip to Bosnia in June 1914 unfolded against a backdrop of heightened tensions in the Balkans, stemming from Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. This move by the Austro-Hungarian Empire provoked discontent, particularly from Serbia, which aspired to unite South Slavic peoples under its influence. Bosnia, annexed to strengthen Austro-Hungarian control in the region, became a focal point of nationalist sentiments and resistance.
The Archduke’s official agenda included the inspection of Austro-Hungarian troops stationed in Bosnia, underscoring the military presence and strategic importance of the region. The troops were a visible symbol of imperial authority aimed at suppressing nationalist movements and maintaining control over the newly annexed territories.
The trip took a tragic turn in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist. Princip, aligned with anti-Austro-Hungarian sentiments and influenced by broader Slavic nationalist movements, saw the assassination as a symbolic act against imperial rule. The assassination set off a chain of events, ultimately leading to Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on Serbia, marking the beginning of World War I.
The Alliances that Led to the Great War
In response to the assassination, Austria-Hungary, already harboring resentment toward Serbia, issued an ultimatum to the Serbian government. The ultimatum’s harsh terms, fueled by a desire to suppress Slavic nationalism, included demands for Serbia to dismantle anti-Austrian activities and accept an Austro-Hungarian investigation into the assassination. Serbia’s partial acceptance of the ultimatum failed to satisfy Austria-Hungary, which, backed by Germany, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
The chain reaction began as Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized its forces against Austria-Hungary. Germany, aligned with Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. France, bound by alliances with Russia, was drawn into the conflict, and Germany’s invasion of Belgium on August 4 prompted Britain to enter the war to honor its commitments. The Great War had begun.
The Schlieffen Plan
In the early 20th century, as Europe teetered on the brink of conflict, German Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen crafted a bold and ambitious plan that would come to be known as the Schlieffen Plan. This military strategy, devised around 1905-06, aimed to address Germany’s precarious position caught between the prospect of a two-front war against France in the west and Russia in the east.
In the grand design of the Schlieffen Plan, Germany sought to swiftly and decisively defeat France by executing a lightning-fast invasion through neutral Belgium, bypassing the formidable defenses along the Franco-German border. The intention was to incapacitate France before turning attention to the Eastern Front to face the advancing Russian forces.
As the ominous clouds of World War I gathered in 1914, Germany set the Schlieffen Plan into motion. However, the grand scheme encountered unforeseen challenges and resistance. The turning point came at the Battle of the Marne, where French and British forces mounted a formidable defense, halting the seemingly unstoppable German advance.
The Schlieffen Plan, once a blueprint for German dominance, faced a reality check. The failure of the plan marked a pivotal moment in the war’s narrative, leading to a protracted and entrenched conflict on the Western Front. The story of the Schlieffen Plan serves as a vivid illustration of the complexities and uncertainties of military strategies, demonstrating that even the most meticulously crafted plans can unravel in the crucible of war.
The Central Powers
In a pivotal shift during the prelude to World War I, the composition of the Central Powers underwent a notable change. Italy, initially aligned with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, decided to abandon the alliance and pursue its strategic interests independently. This diplomatic maneuver, known as the Treaty of London in 1915, saw Italy joining the Triple Entente, composed of France, Russia, and Britain, in exchange for territorial promises. Italy’s departure created a void in the alliance that was swiftly filled by the Ottoman Empire, which entered into a formal alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in October 1914. This realignment transformed the Central Powers into a coalition comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. The addition of the Ottoman Empire brought a significant geopolitical dimension to the Central Powers, expanding their reach into the Middle East and intensifying the global scope of World War I.
Japan
Japan’s involvement in World War I, which commenced in 1914, was driven by a combination of strategic, economic, and geopolitical considerations. Initially, Japan adhered to a policy of neutrality, benefiting from economic ties with both the Allied and Central Powers. However, as the war progressed, Japan seized the opportunity to expand its influence in the Pacific and Asia, asserting itself as a regional power.
In 1914, Japan, adhering to the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance formed in 1902, declared war on Germany. The primary objective was to secure German-controlled territories in East Asia, namely the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands, as well as Tsingtao in China. Japan aimed to strengthen its imperial holdings, enhance its naval capabilities, and establish itself as a dominant force in the Asia-Pacific region.
Japan’s military engagement in World War I provided a platform for the nation to demonstrate its growing prowess on the global stage. Moreover, the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 recognized Japan’s territorial gains, solidifying its status as a major power. Japan’s participation in World War I thus marked a crucial chapter in its emergence as a key player in international affairs, setting the stage for its continued geopolitical influence in the years to come.
The United States
In the early 20th century, the United States found itself grappling with the complexities of international affairs as World War I raged in Europe. Initially adhering to a policy of isolationism, the U.S. sought to steer clear of the conflict, focusing on domestic concerns. However, a series of events gradually drew the nation into the fray.
One pivotal moment was the sinking of the British ocean liner RMS Lusitania by a German submarine in 1915. The tragedy claimed the lives of over a thousand, including 128 Americans. The sinking heightened tensions and spurred public outrage, challenging the nation’s commitment to isolationism. Despite this, the U.S. hesitated to fully engage in the war.
In 1917, a turning point emerged with the revelation of the infamous Zimmerman telegram. Sent by Germany to Mexico, the telegram proposed a military alliance against the United States if it entered the war against Germany. This startling revelation further swayed public opinion and intensified anti-German sentiment.
In April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson, having secured a mandate from Congress, declared war on Germany. The decision marked a departure from the nation’s isolationist stance and thrust the United States into the global conflict. The subsequent involvement of American troops on the Western Front played a significant role in tilting the balance in favor of the Allies and shaping the outcome of World War I.
The End of the War
As World War I entered its final phase, the toll on both human lives and geopolitical landscapes was profound. The war, which had raged from 1914 to 1918, witnessed unprecedented levels of destruction and suffering. Casualties on all sides were staggering, with millions of soldiers and civilians paying the ultimate price for the conflict’s relentless brutality.
The total number of casualties in World War I surpassed 40 million, including approximately 9.7 million military personnel and over 10 million civilians killed as a result of the fighting, disease, and other war-related causes. The physical and psychological scars left by the war ran deep, reshaping the political and social fabric of nations.
Amidst this backdrop, the Central Powers found themselves facing insurmountable challenges. A combination of military defeats, economic exhaustion, and internal strife eroded their capacity to sustain the war effort. Germany, in particular, was burdened by a blockade that stifled its access to essential resources. The entrance of fresh American troops onto the Western Front provided a crucial boost to the Allies, tipping the balance in their favor.
The culmination of these factors led to the Armistice of Compiegne on November 11, 1918, effectively ending the hostilities. The Central Powers, recognizing the untenable situation, succumbed to the inevitable and accepted the terms of the armistice. The war’s conclusion marked a watershed moment in history, reshaping the political landscape through treaties like the Treaty of Versailles and setting the stage for a complex post-war era.
The Treaty of Versailles
Crafted in 1919 within the opulent surroundings of the Palace of Versailles, the Treaty of Versailles sought to address the aftermath of World War I, reshape national boundaries, and establish a framework for lasting peace. The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire stood as one of its profound outcomes, reflecting the principle of self-determination as new nations emerged from the remnants of the once-vast political entity.
A hallmark feature of the treaty was the establishment of the League of Nations, an international organization aimed at fostering cooperation among nations to prevent future conflicts. While facing challenges and proving unable to prevent World War II, the League marked an early attempt at global governance.
The treaty included the infamous “war guilt clause” (Article 231), which unequivocally placed blame for the war on Germany and its allies. Punitive measures, including territorial losses, demilitarization, and reparations, were imposed on Germany, reflecting the Allies’ desire to hold a specific party accountable for the war’s immense human and economic costs.
In assigning blame, England and France, as key Allied powers, navigated complex postwar realities. The need to satisfy domestic sentiments and find a tangible target for blame influenced the emphasis on Germany’s culpability. Negotiations leading to the treaty were shaped by a delicate balance between geopolitical interests, public opinion, and the aspirations of nations emerging from the disintegration of empires.
While hailed as a noble effort to secure peace, the Treaty of Versailles also laid the groundwork for future tensions. Its punitive measures and territorial adjustments sowed the seeds of resentment, contributing to the geopolitical complexities that defined the interwar period. As historians analyze its impact, the treaty remains a crucial chapter in the intricate tapestry of 20th-century history.
The End of the Ottoman Empire
The aftermath of World War I brought significant changes to the Ottoman Empire. Defeated as part of the Central Powers, the empire faced restructuring through the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. This treaty aimed to redefine its borders, resulting in substantial territorial losses and the recognition of the independence of various nations. However, internal resistance to these terms prompted a renegotiation.
In 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne replaced the Treaty of Sèvres. This new agreement, negotiated between the Allies and the Republic of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, addressed outstanding issues. It recognized the sovereignty of the newly formed Republic of Turkey, establishing modern-day Turkey and delineating its borders.
The end of the Ottoman Empire marked a significant turning point, concluding centuries of imperial rule and paving the way for the establishment of an independent Turkish state. The emergence of the Republic of Turkey, led by Atatürk, signaled a transformative era characterized by political, social, and cultural reforms that defined Turkey’s post-Ottoman identity.
Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, presented to Congress in January 1918, outlined his vision for a just and lasting peace after World War I. As the United States entered the war, Wilson sought to articulate a set of principles to guide the postwar world order. The Fourteen Points addressed both the immediate concerns of the conflict and the long-term aspirations for global stability.
Key elements of the Fourteen Points included the principles of open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, free trade, and the reduction of armaments. Wilson advocated for the adjustment of colonial claims based on the principle of self-determination, allowing nations to determine their own political destinies. One of the pivotal points called for the creation of an international organization, which later materialized as the League of Nations, aimed at preventing future conflicts through collective security and diplomatic resolutions.
The Fourteen Points reflected Wilson’s commitment to a new world order characterized by transparency, fairness, and cooperation among nations. While some of the specific points faced challenges during the postwar negotiations, the principles laid the groundwork for discussions at the Treaty of Versailles and influenced subsequent diplomatic initiatives. Wilson’s vision, encapsulated in the Fourteen Points, remains a significant chapter in the history of international relations, shaping debates on peace, self-determination, and global governance.
The League of Nations
The formation of the League of Nations in the aftermath of World War I represented a historic attempt to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. Envisioned in President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, the League was a central component of the Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919.
The League of Nations was established with the primary goal of promoting collective security and diplomacy among nations. Member states pledged to resolve disputes through peaceful means and avoid resorting to war. The League’s covenant outlined a structure that included an Assembly, where all member states were represented, and a Council comprising major powers, with provisions for additional non-permanent members.
The League’s early years saw various successes, including the resolution of minor disputes and the provision of humanitarian aid. However, its effectiveness faced significant challenges. The absence of key nations, including the United States, weakened its global influence. Moreover, the League’s inability to prevent the outbreak of World War II underscored its limitations.
Despite its shortcomings, the League of Nations laid the groundwork for the establishment of the United Nations after World War II. The League’s legacy remains as a pioneering effort in international diplomacy, with its successes and failures shaping subsequent approaches to global governance and collective security.
Women’s Changing Roles
World War I brought about significant changes in the roles of women as they stepped into various non-traditional roles to support the war effort. With millions of men enlisted in the military, women filled crucial positions in factories, offices, and farms, taking on jobs that were previously considered exclusively male. The image of the “munitionettes” and the “women’s land army” became iconic symbols of the wartime female workforce. Women’s suffrage movements gained momentum during this period, and their contributions to the war effort became a compelling argument for granting women the right to vote. After the war, many women faced a complex transition as soldiers returned and societal expectations for women reverted to prewar norms. However, the seeds of change had been planted. The war experience had challenged traditional gender roles, leading to increased awareness of women’s capabilities. In the aftermath of World War I, several countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, granted women the right to vote. While progress was gradual, these shifts marked the beginning of a broader transformation in women’s roles, setting the stage for subsequent waves of feminist movements and a more sustained push for gender equality in the decades that followed.
Unit 7: Global Conflict
AP World History
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