Unresolved Tensions after World War I for AP World History

Feb 2

13 min read

The end of World War I changed the boundaries of countries in Europe. While the colonies of the imperial powers hoped similar changes would come for them, life stayed the same. The imperial powers, such as Britain and France, needed the raw materials and captive markets of their colonies to support their efforts to rebuild their homefronts. The disconnect between the language of self-determination in the League of Nations rhetoric and the reality on the ground in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East led to disconnect and renewed nationalist fervor in the colonies. Read the Google Slides to learn about the unresolved tensions after World War I.

Illustrative Examples

Britain and France Take Over German Colonies

Manchukuo/Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Indian National Congress

West African Resistance to French Rule

Borders in Europe after World War I

After World War I, the geopolitical map of Europe underwent significant changes as a result of the dissolution of empires and the redrawing of borders. The Treaty of Versailles and other peace treaties that followed led to the disintegration of several multinational empires, including the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. New nation-states emerged from the remnants of these empires, such as Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. Additionally, the principle of national self-determination was emphasized, leading to the establishment of independent states for various ethnic groups. Borders were redrawn to reflect ethnic and linguistic divisions, although this process often sparked conflicts and territorial disputes. The creation of new borders and the reconfiguration of existing ones reshaped the political landscape of Europe, laying the groundwork for future tensions and conflicts in the region.

Countries Created after World War I

Czechoslovakia: Formed from the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Czechoslovakia emerged as an independent state in 1918, comprising the regions of Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, and parts of Silesia.

Yugoslavia: Established in 1918, Yugoslavia was created as a union of South Slavic peoples, including Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and others. It initially comprised the Kingdom of Serbia and parts of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Poland: Poland regained its independence in 1918 after more than a century of partitions and foreign rule. The Treaty of Versailles recognized Poland as an independent state, with its borders extended to incorporate territories from the German, Austrian, and Russian Empires.

Finland: Following the Russian Revolution and subsequent Finnish War of Independence, Finland declared independence from Russia in 1917 and became a sovereign state in 1918.

Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania: These Baltic states gained independence from the Russian Empire in the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution. They declared independence in 1918 and were recognized as independent nations by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and subsequent treaties.

Austria: The Republic of Austria emerged in 1919 after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It retained a significantly reduced territory compared to the former empire.

Hungary: The Kingdom of Hungary became an independent republic in 1918 following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Ireland: The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 led to the establishment of the Irish Free State (later Ireland) as a self-governing dominion within the British Empire. This marked the beginning of Ireland’s path to independence from British rule.

Colonial Holdings after World War I

After World War I, colonial holdings underwent significant changes as European powers grappled with the aftermath of the conflict and shifting geopolitical dynamics. While some colonial powers retained their territories, others faced challenges to their imperial control. The war weakened the colonial powers economically and politically, prompting calls for self-determination and independence from colonized peoples. Notably, many imperial powers had promised independence or greater autonomy to colonial subjects in exchange for their participation in the war effort. However, these promises were not fulfilled, leading to disillusionment and resentment among colonial populations.

Additionally, colonial territories owned by the defeated Central Powers, part of the Triple Alliance, were redistributed among the victorious Allied powers as part of the post-war settlements. This redistribution further fueled tensions and aspirations for self-rule among colonized peoples. The principle of national self-determination, emphasized in the peace negotiations that ended World War I, fueled anti-colonial movements and demands for autonomy across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

The League of Nations, established in the aftermath of the war, advocated for the rights of colonial peoples and promoted the idea of trusteeship, whereby colonial powers were expected to govern their territories in the interests of the inhabitants. These developments contributed to the gradual dismantling of colonial empires in the decades following World War I, although decolonization processes varied widely across regions and took many years to unfold completely.

India after World War I

India’s quest for independence started long before World War I. Established in 1885, the Indian National Congress (INC) provided a platform for Indian leaders to voice their demands for political reforms, representation, and independence to the British government. The INC advocated for greater autonomy and social justice for all Indians.

However, the aspirations for self-rule were met with a tragic setback during the Massacre of Amritsar in 1919. The incident unfolded against the backdrop of widespread protests sparked by the draconian Rowlatt Act, which authorized the British government to detain individuals without trial. In response to the act, thousands of unarmed civilians, including men, women, and children, gathered in an enclosed garden in Amritsar to peacefully protest against British oppression and demand the release of political prisoners.

On April 13, 1919, British troops, under the command of Brigadier General Reginald Dyer, indiscriminately opened fire on the unarmed crowd without warning, trapping them in the enclosed space. The ruthless attack resulted in hundreds of deaths and left thousands wounded, shocking the nation and sparking widespread outrage.

The Massacre at Amritsar galvanized Mohandas Gandhi, who had returned to India in 1915 after spending two decades in South Africa fighting against racial discrimination. During his time in South Africa, Gandhi honed his philosophy of nonviolent resistance, inspired by the principles of truth and compassion.

Upon his return to India, Gandhi swiftly emerged as a beacon of hope for millions, advocating for civil liberties and challenging British oppression. He led various nonviolent movements, including the homespun movement, urging Indians to boycott British goods and embrace self-sufficiency. Through spinning his own cloth, Gandhi symbolized the power of economic independence and self-reliance, inspiring Indians to reclaim their dignity and autonomy.

In 1930, Gandhi embarked on his iconic Salt March, a 240-mile journey from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi. This act of civil disobedience aimed to protest the British salt monopoly and challenge unjust laws. Gandhi’s symbolic gesture of harvesting salt from the sea resonated deeply with Indians, igniting a wave of resistance and solidarity across the country.

However, the road to freedom was fraught with challenges. British colonial policies, aimed at maintaining control and exploiting India’s resources, posed significant obstacles to the nationalist movement. Moreover, internal divisions within Indian society, exacerbated by religious and social tensions, complicated efforts to unite under a common agenda for independence.

The outbreak of World War II further complicated India’s quest for freedom. While the British government focused on the war effort, the Indian National Congress and other nationalist groups pressed for immediate political reforms and self-governance. However, British reluctance to grant concessions towards independence amid the war diverted attention and resources away from the nationalist movement.

Mohandas Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, India. Renowned for his pivotal role in India’s struggle for independence, Gandhi was a visionary leader, philosopher, and advocate for nonviolent resistance. After studying law in England, Gandhi embarked on a legal career in South Africa, where he experienced firsthand the injustices of racial discrimination. It was during his time in South Africa that Gandhi developed his philosophy of Satyagraha, or truth-force, which emphasized nonviolent resistance as a powerful tool for social and political change.

Upon returning to India in 1915, Gandhi emerged as a key figure in the Indian National Congress (INC) and led various nonviolent movements against British colonial rule. Through acts of civil disobedience such as the Salt March and the homespun movement, Gandhi galvanized mass support and inspired millions to join the struggle for independence.

Gandhi’s leadership transcended borders and ideologies, earning him international acclaim as a champion of peace, justice, and human rights. Despite facing numerous challenges and enduring periods of imprisonment, Gandhi remained steadfast in his commitment to truth and nonviolence.

His efforts ultimately culminated in India’s independence from British rule in 1947, marking a watershed moment in history. Gandhi’s legacy continues to inspire generations of activists and leaders worldwide, embodying the principles of compassion, integrity, and the power of ordinary individuals to effect profound change.

Korea after World War I

Following the tumult of World War I, Korea found itself embroiled in a complex web of geopolitical tensions and internal strife. Japan, emboldened by its territorial gains during the war, sought to further expand its influence in the region, exacerbating Korean discontent. The death of Emperor Gojong in 1919 under mysterious circumstances fueled speculation and suspicion, with many Koreans believing Japan was responsible for his demise. This sentiment, coupled with deep-seated grievances against Japanese colonial rule, culminated in the March 1st Movement of 1919. On this day, millions of Koreans took to the streets in a massive demonstration against Japanese oppression, demanding independence and self-determination. The movement, although brutally suppressed by Japanese authorities, marked a significant moment in Korea’s quest for freedom and galvanized international support for their cause. Despite the challenges and setbacks, the spirit of resistance ignited by the March 1st Movement would continue to fuel Korea’s struggle for independence in the years to come.

Manchukuo

Manchukuo, established in 1932, was a puppet state in Northeast China created by Imperial Japan following the Mukden Incident, where Japanese military forces staged an attack on a railway as a pretext for intervention. This act allowed Japan to exert control over the resource-rich region of Manchuria. Under Japanese rule, Manchukuo was presented as an autonomous state, but in reality, it was tightly controlled by Japan’s military and administrative apparatus. The puppet government, headed by Henry Pu Yi, the last emperor of China, served as a facade for Japanese colonialism. Manchukuo became a tool for Japanese exploitation, with its resources plundered and its people subjected to forced labor and cultural suppression. Despite Japan’s efforts to legitimize Manchukuo as a cooperative venture, it remained a symbol of Japan’s aggressive expansionism and colonial ambitions in East Asia. The establishment of Manchukuo exacerbated tensions in the region and contributed to the growing hostilities that ultimately led to World War II.

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was a concept propagated by Imperial Japan during World War II to justify its imperialist expansion and domination of East Asia and Southeast Asia. Introduced in the early 1940s, the Co-Prosperity Sphere was presented as a vision of regional cooperation and economic integration, with Japan portrayed as the benevolent leader guiding the development of the region. However, in reality, the Co-Prosperity Sphere served as a guise for Japan’s aggressive expansionism and subjugation of neighboring countries under its control. Rather than fostering genuine prosperity and cooperation, Japan exploited the resources and manpower of occupied territories for its own benefit. The Co-Prosperity Sphere was characterized by forced labor, cultural assimilation, and harsh colonial rule, leading to widespread suffering and resistance among the populations of occupied territories. Ultimately, the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was a tool for Japan to consolidate its power and further its imperialist ambitions, contributing to the devastation and turmoil of World War II in the Asia-Pacific region.

China after World War I

Following World War I, China underwent a period of profound change and social upheaval. The May 4th Movement of 1919 marked a significant turning point, characterized by widespread student protests and intellectual ferment against imperialism and feudalism. Despite China’s significant contributions to the Allied war effort, the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 saw Japan gaining control of Germany’s concessions in China, a decision that fueled widespread discontent and anti-Japanese sentiment. This perceived betrayal by the Western powers deepened nationalist fervor and spurred calls for reform and modernization within China. The May 4th Movement, with its emphasis on patriotism, democracy, and science, galvanized a generation of Chinese intellectuals and activists, laying the groundwork for the emergence of Mao Zedong and Sun Yat-sen.

Mao Zedong and Sun Yat-sen, as well as their respective political entities, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Kuomintang (KMT), represent contrasting visions and paths for China’s political development. Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of the Republic of China, envisioned a modern, democratic China based on the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and livelihood. He sought to overthrow the imperial system and establish a republic, advocating for social and economic reforms to uplift the Chinese people. In contrast, Mao Zedong, the leader of the CCP, espoused Marxist-Leninist ideology and envisioned a socialist revolution to emancipate the Chinese proletariat from feudalism and imperialism. Mao’s vision of a communist society emphasized class struggle, mass mobilization, and agrarian reform.

The death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925 marked a pivotal moment in China’s political landscape, triggering a power struggle within the Kuomintang (KMT) and shaping the trajectory of China’s tumultuous journey towards modernization. Chiang Kai-shek, Sun’s protege and successor, emerged as the paramount leader of the KMT, consolidating his authority and embarking on a campaign to reunify China and suppress the influence of warlords and communists. However, Chiang’s authoritarian rule and failure to implement Sun’s vision of democracy and social justice alienated many within the KMT and broader society.

While Kai-shek was consolidating power in China, he also had to deal with a war with Japan. The Second Sino-Japanese War, spanning from 1937 to 1945, emerged from escalating tensions between China and Japan, eventually erupting into a full-scale conflict with profound consequences for both nations and the broader region.

The war began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July 1937, near Beijing, when a skirmish broke out between Chinese and Japanese troops stationed in the area. This incident quickly escalated into a full-scale Japanese invasion of China, marking the formal commencement of hostilities. Japan’s aggressive expansionist policies, fueled by a desire for territorial conquest and access to resources, led to the occupation of large swathes of Chinese territory.

The conflict was marked by extensive atrocities perpetrated by Japanese forces, including the infamous Nanjing Massacre, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and the widespread destruction of cities and infrastructure. China, under the leadership of the Kuomintang (KMT) government, waged a determined resistance against Japanese aggression, employing both conventional and guerrilla tactics. Despite enduring immense suffering and devastation, China’s resilience and resistance played a crucial role in tying down Japanese forces and contributing to the eventual defeat of Japan in World War II.

After World War II, China plunged into a devastating civil conflict between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the ruling Nationalist government, led by the Kuomintang (KMT). Despite their previous cooperation against the Japanese during the war, deep-seated ideological differences and power struggles quickly reignited hostilities between the two factions. The resumption of the Chinese Civil War in 1946 was fueled by a complex web of factors, including territorial disputes, economic disparities, and the legacy of past grievances. The CCP, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, capitalized on widespread discontent among peasants and workers, presenting itself as the champion of social justice and agrarian reform. Meanwhile, the KMT, led by Chiang Kai-shek, struggled to maintain control over its war-weary and fractious territories while grappling with issues of corruption and internal dissent. The civil war would exact a heavy toll on China, both in terms of human lives lost and infrastructure destroyed, ultimately culminating in the victory of the CCP and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. Throughout the conflict, the United States provided significant military and financial support to the KMT, aiming to bolster its fight against the communist forces. This support included weapons, equipment, and advisors, as the United States sought to contain the spread of communism in Asia and maintain a pro-Western government in China. Despite these efforts, the eventual triumph of the CCP signaled a significant shift in the geopolitical landscape of East Asia.

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong, born on December 26, 1893, in Hunan Province, China, emerged as one of the most influential figures in modern Chinese history. Raised in a peasant family, Mao received a traditional Confucian education before becoming involved in revolutionary activities during his early adulthood. He joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the 1920s and quickly rose through its ranks due to his organizational skills and revolutionary fervor. Mao became known for his theories on peasant-based revolution and guerrilla warfare, which guided the CCP’s strategy during the Chinese Civil War against the ruling Nationalist government. Despite setbacks and internal power struggles, Mao’s leadership ultimately led to the CCP’s victory in 1949 and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. As Chairman of the Communist Party and the country’s paramount leader, Mao implemented sweeping social and economic reforms, including the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, which had profound and often devastating effects on Chinese society. Mao’s policies and leadership left an indelible mark on China’s history, shaping its trajectory into the modern era.

Sun Yat-sen

Sun Yat-sen, also known as Sun Zhongshan, was a pivotal figure in modern Chinese history, revered as the “Father of the Nation” for his role in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and founding the Republic of China. Born on November 12, 1866, in Guangdong Province, Sun was deeply influenced by China’s decline under imperial rule and the growing influence of Western powers. He became a prominent advocate for reform and modernization, advocating for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of a republic. In 1911, Sun’s vision was realized with the successful Xinhai Revolution, which led to the abdication of the last Qing emperor and the establishment of the Republic of China. Despite his efforts, Sun’s leadership was often challenged by internal divisions and the rise of warlords, leading to a turbulent period of political instability. Throughout his life, Sun remained committed to his vision of a modern, democratic China, founding the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) and laying the groundwork for the eventual reunification of China under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. Sun Yat-sen’s legacy continues to resonate in China and Taiwan, where he is revered as a national hero and a symbol of the country’s struggle for modernization and national unity.

Chiang Kai-shek

Chiang Kai-shek, born on October 31, 1887, in Zhejiang Province, China, rose to prominence as a military and political leader during a tumultuous period in China’s history. Initially trained at a military academy in Japan, Chiang became involved in the Kuomintang (KMT), or Nationalist Party, led by Sun Yat-sen. After Sun’s death in 1925, Chiang emerged as the paramount leader of the KMT, assuming control of both the party and the military forces. He sought to unify China under KMT rule and modernize the country’s economy and military. Chiang’s leadership, however, was marked by internal power struggles, corruption, and authoritarianism, which alienated many segments of Chinese society. Despite his efforts, Chiang faced significant challenges from both domestic rivals, such as the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong, and external threats, including Japanese invasion. After World War II, Chiang’s government was weakened by widespread corruption and inflation, leading to the loss of popular support. In 1949, following the Chinese Civil War, Chiang and the KMT were forced to retreat to Taiwan, where they established a separate government known as the Republic of China. Chiang’s rule in Taiwan was characterized by authoritarianism, but he also oversaw significant economic and social reforms that transformed Taiwan into a prosperous and democratic society. Chiang remains a controversial figure in Chinese history, revered by some as a patriot and vilified by others as a dictator.

Colonial West Africa after World War I

After World War I, West Africa witnessed increased resistance to French colonial rule, fueled by a combination of economic exploitation, cultural suppression, and political marginalization. In response to French domination, West African communities organized various forms of resistance, ranging from peaceful protests to armed uprisings. One notable example of resistance occurred in French West Africa, where indigenous populations challenged oppressive colonial policies through strikes, demonstrations, and grassroots movements. These resistance efforts aimed to address grievances such as forced labor, discriminatory practices, and land dispossession imposed by French colonial authorities. Additionally, West African intellectuals and nationalist leaders emerged to articulate demands for self-determination and autonomy, laying the groundwork for future independence movements. Despite facing harsh repression from colonial forces, West African resistance movements played a crucial role in challenging French hegemony and paving the way for decolonization in the region.

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