The United States' Foreign Policy Between 1750 and 1900 for AP World History

The United States became a country in 1776 when leaders signed the Declaration of Independence. After the Revolutionary War against Britain ended in 1781, they were ready to start building their government. In 1787, the Constitution was signed, and George Washington became the first president of the United States. Less than forty years later, one of the signers of the Constitution, James Monroe, introduced the Monroe Doctrine and communicated to the world that the United States was ready to be viewed as a world power. Read the Google Slides to learn more about the United States’ foreign policy between 1750 and 1900 for AP World History.

The Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine, proclaimed by President James Monroe in 1823, was a pivotal U.S. foreign policy statement encapsulating two key principles. Firstly, it warned European powers against further colonization in the Americas, declaring the Western Hemisphere off-limits for such endeavors. Secondly, it asserted U.S. neutrality in European affairs, emphasizing non-intervention in existing European colonies. The doctrine aimed to safeguard the autonomy of newly independent Latin American nations while signaling a burgeoning U.S. role in shaping the geopolitical dynamics of the Western Hemisphere.

Firstly, the ongoing wave of Latin American independence movements from Spanish colonial rule presented a critical backdrop. The newfound sovereignty of these nations raised concerns among U.S. policymakers about potential European efforts to reassert control or establish new colonies in the Americas. The Monroe Doctrine served as a preemptive measure to dissuade such interference and to safeguard the autonomy of these emerging nations.

Secondly, the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the establishment of the Concert of Europe, an alliance of major European powers, raised apprehensions about potential collaboration to suppress popular uprisings or to engage in further colonial expansion. The U.S., wary of entanglement in European conflicts, sought to delineate a clear boundary between the Old and New Worlds.

Thirdly, domestically, the Monroe Doctrine was also a manifestation of a burgeoning sense of American identity and confidence. The U.S. was increasingly assertive in asserting its position as an independent actor on the global stage, and the doctrine symbolized a shift toward a more proactive and self-assured foreign policy.

Britain supported the Monroe Doctrine for a confluence of reasons, including its strategic alignment with British economic interests and concerns about Spain’s role in the Western Hemisphere. In the early 19th century, Spain, having lost many of its colonies in Latin America, was attempting to regain control. Britain, with a vested interest in maintaining stability and open trade in the region, viewed the Monroe Doctrine as a bulwark against potential Spanish resurgence. British leaders were wary of Spain’s historical inclination toward colonial dominance, and the doctrine served as a deterrent against any Spanish attempts to reassert control or establish new colonies in the Americas. By aligning with the principles of the Monroe Doctrine, Britain aimed to ensure that the newly independent nations in Latin America would remain free from European intervention, providing a conducive environment for British economic activities and trade.

President Monroe

James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States (1817–1825), is recognized for his pivotal role in shaping American foreign policy during a critical era. Born in Virginia in 1758, Monroe served in the Continental Army during the American Revolution and later contributed significantly to the drafting of the U.S. Constitution. A seasoned diplomat, he played a key role in negotiating the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. As president, Monroe presided over what became known as the “Era of Good Feelings,” a period characterized by relative political harmony and economic growth. His administration is particularly noteworthy for the Monroe Doctrine, declared in 1823, which asserted U.S. opposition to European colonization in the Americas and laid the groundwork for future American foreign policy. Monroe’s presidency reflected the spirit of nationalism and expansionism, leaving an enduring impact on the nation’s development during a time of profound transformation.

The Spanish-American War

The long-standing Cuban struggle for independence from Spanish rule was a key catalyst of the Spanish-American War, fueled by brutal Spanish repression and exacerbated by sensationalized reporting in the American press. The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in 1898, though its cause remains uncertain, became a rallying cry for American intervention. Media coverage, marked by yellow journalism, intensified anti-Spanish sentiments in the United States.

Beyond humanitarian concerns, the war was driven by strategic and economic interests. The United States, increasingly viewing itself as a burgeoning global power, sought to expand its influence in the Western Hemisphere. Key figures, including President William McKinley, recognized the potential benefits of controlling vital sea routes through the Caribbean and the Pacific. Additionally, the desire for economic opportunities in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines played a role in motivating U.S. intervention.

The sinking of the USS Maine served as a tipping point, leading to a U.S. declaration of war against Spain in April 1898. The conflict was relatively brief but had far-reaching consequences. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, resulted in the cession of territories, making the United States an imperial power. The acquisition of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines marked a significant shift in American foreign policy, with the U.S. now possessing overseas colonies.

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine assumed a proactive role in responding to European warships in Venezuela during the early 20th century. In 1902, when Venezuela faced a mounting debt crisis, European powers, including Germany, Britain, and Italy, dispatched warships to coerce repayment. President Theodore Roosevelt invoked the Roosevelt Corollary to assert the United States’ authority in the region. Expressing concern that European intervention could destabilize the hemisphere, Roosevelt justified U.S. intervention to mediate the dispute and prevent further European encroachment. While emphasizing the doctrine’s stance against new territorial acquisitions, Roosevelt’s intervention in Venezuela reflected a departure from the Monroe Doctrine’s initial non-intervention principle, signaling a more interventionist approach to maintain regional stability and protect U.S. economic interests. The episode underscores the Roosevelt Corollary’s pivotal role in shaping U.S. foreign policy, establishing a precedent for direct U.S. involvement in Latin American affairs to counterbalance European influence.

President Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt, often referred to as Teddy Roosevelt, was the 26th President of the United States (1901–1909) and a transformative figure in American history. Born in 1858, Roosevelt came to prominence as a Rough Rider during the Spanish-American War, gaining national attention for his leadership in the Battle of San Juan Hill. As president, he championed progressive reforms, earning a reputation as a “trust buster” for his efforts to regulate and curb the power of big business through antitrust legislation. Roosevelt also expanded the national parks system, emphasizing conservation and environmental stewardship. His foreign policy, encapsulated by the slogan “speak softly and carry a big stick,” reflected a robust approach to diplomacy and the assertion of U.S. influence in global affairs. Instrumental in negotiating the end of the Russo-Japanese War, Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906. His presidency left an indelible mark on American politics, contributing to the development of the modern presidency and shaping the trajectory of the Progressive Era.

The Panama Canal

The isthmus of Panama was part of Colombia until the early 20th century. In the late 19th century, there was growing interest in constructing a canal across the isthmus to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, providing a shortcut for maritime trade.

Efforts to negotiate with Colombia for the construction of the canal failed, primarily due to disagreements over terms and compensation. In 1903, with the assistance of the United States, Panama declared its independence from Colombia. The United States promptly recognized Panama as a sovereign nation, and shortly thereafter, negotiated the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the newly formed Republic of Panama. This treaty granted the United States control over the Panama Canal Zone, a strip of land essential for the construction and operation of the canal.

The construction of the Panama Canal began in 1904 and was completed in 1914. The U.S. involvement in Panama’s independence and the subsequent control over the canal zone marked a chapter in American foreign policy and demonstrated the strategic and economic interests that motivated U.S. actions in the region during that era.

AP World History