New Technologies and Their Consequences Between 1450 and 1750 for AP World History

Nov 17, 2023

6 min read

In all of our lessons on the different empires and countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa between 1450 and 1750, technology has played a central role. In this Google Slides presentation, you will get an overview of the three main technologies that impacted the expansion or downfall of civilizations during this time: gunpowder, shipbuilding technologies, and the printing press.

Gunpowder

Gunpowder, a transformative invention with ancient origins, revolutionized warfare and shaped human history. Composed of saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur, gunpowder’s discovery is often attributed to Chinese alchemists around the 9th century. Its earliest applications were in medicine and later evolved into military use during the Tang Dynasty. By the 13th century, gunpowder technology had spread to the Middle East and Europe, fundamentally altering the nature of warfare. Cannons, firearms, and eventually explosive artillery became instrumental in battles, leading to the end of traditional siege warfare and the rise of firearms as dominant weapons. The impact of gunpowder on global geopolitics and the course of history is immeasurable, marking a pivotal point in technological innovation and its profound consequences on military strategy and international relations.

Shipbuilding Technology

Shipbuilding technology played a pivotal role in facilitating the Age of Exploration during the 15th and 16th centuries. Innovations such as the caravel, a versatile and maneuverable ship design, empowered explorers to navigate both coastal and open waters. The adoption of triangular sails, known as lateen sails, allowed for improved maneuverability against the wind, enabling ships to sail closer to it.

Additionally, the sternpost rudder enhanced steering control, making it easier for vessels to navigate through unpredictable ocean currents. The development of the astrolabe and quadrant for navigation, coupled with improvements in cartography, enabled more accurate positioning at sea. These advancements collectively transformed maritime technology, providing explorers like Columbus, da Gama, and Magellan with the tools to venture beyond known horizons, opening up new trade routes and connecting distant regions in a period of unprecedented global exploration and discovery.

The Printing Press

The invention of the printing press in the 15th century marked a revolutionary turning point in the history of communication and knowledge dissemination. Johannes Gutenberg, a German inventor, is credited with developing the first movable-type printing press around 1440. This groundbreaking device enabled the mass production of books, pamphlets, and other printed materials, replacing the laborious and time-consuming process of manual copying by scribes. The printing press played a pivotal role in democratizing information, making books more accessible to a wider audience and fostering the spread of ideas across continents. The Gutenberg Bible, printed in the 1450s, stands as a testament to the impact of this invention. The availability of printed materials fueled the Renaissance, Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution, influencing not only religious and scholarly discourse but also shaping the political and cultural landscape of Europe. The printing press laid the foundation for the modern information age, setting the stage for the rapid dissemination of knowledge and the development of mass media. Its profound impact echoes through the centuries, emphasizing the transformative power of innovation in communication technologies.

The Effects of Gunpowder Technology

Before 1750, Europe, the Muslim Empires, and various Asian civilizations played pivotal roles in the development and utilization of gunpowder technology. Originating in China, gunpowder found its way to the Middle East through the Silk Road during the medieval period. By the 14th century, the technology had spread to the Islamic world, where it was adopted by the Ottoman Empire and other Muslim states. The Ottomans, in particular, incorporated gunpowder into their military strategies, giving them a technological advantage in warfare. Meanwhile, in Europe, gunpowder technology began to gain prominence during the late medieval and early modern periods. The development of firearms, cannons, and other artillery transformed European military tactics and contributed to the rise of powerful nation-states.

In Asia, the use of gunpowder technology varied across different cultures. In India and Persia, for example, gunpowder was employed for military purposes, contributing to the arsenal of the Mughal Empire. In East Asia, particularly in Ming and later Qing China, gunpowder technology continued to advance, leading to innovations such as handheld firearms and naval artillery.

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The widespread adoption of gunpowder technology had profound consequences on military strategies, geopolitics, and cultural exchanges. It played a role in the decline of medieval feudalism, the rise of centralized states, and the shaping of early modern warfare. The diffusion of this technology across diverse civilizations exemplifies the interconnectedness of global history before the 18th century.

Muslim Empires and the Age of Exploration

The Muslim empires did not participate in the Age of Exploration to the same extent as European powers for several reasons, and it’s essential to consider the historical, economic, and geopolitical factors that shaped their engagement with maritime exploration during that period:

Geopolitical Focus: During the height of the European Age of Exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries, the major Muslim empires, such as the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Empire, and Mughal Empire, were more focused on consolidating and managing their territorial domains. The Ottoman Empire, for example, was primarily concerned with expansion into Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.

Trade Routes and Dominance: Muslim empires already had well-established trade routes that connected them to various regions, including Europe, Africa, and Asia. The Silk Road, the Trans-Saharan trade routes, and maritime routes in the Indian Ocean were crucial for commerce, and these empires played key roles in these existing networks.

Economic Priorities: The economic structures of the Muslim empires were centered around land-based resources and trade routes. They had thriving economies based on agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. Unlike European nations, which sought direct sea routes to Asia for the spice trade, Muslim empires had established overland routes that were economically viable.

Technological Factors: While Muslim civilizations had a rich history of navigation and seafaring, the European powers, particularly Portugal and Spain, invested heavily in developing new maritime technologies. European advancements in ship design, navigation instruments, and cartography gave them a significant advantage in exploring unknown waters.

Political Stability and Centralization: Some of the Muslim empires were characterized by strong central authority, which could sometimes lead to bureaucratic inertia. European states, on the other hand, were often smaller and more competitive, fostering an environment where exploration could be pursued more independently.

Cultural Factors: There were cultural factors at play as well. The Muslim world had a different intellectual and cultural focus during this period, with notable achievements in various fields but not as much emphasis on exploration for its own sake.

The Success of the European Powers

European empires were exceptionally successful at colonization due to a combination of technological, economic, political, and social factors. First and foremost, technological advancements, such as superior ship design, navigation instruments, and firearms, provided Europeans with a significant military and logistical advantage over indigenous populations. The development of ocean-worthy vessels, like caravels, allowed for long-distance sea travel, enabling exploration and colonization on a global scale. Economically, Europe’s burgeoning mercantile and capitalist systems fueled a desire for new markets, resources, and trade routes. This economic incentive, coupled with the search for precious metals and spices, motivated explorers to venture into unknown territories. Additionally, the political landscape of Europe, characterized by competition between nation-states, drove a race for overseas territories and the establishment of colonies. The centralized control of power in European monarchies facilitated the coordination of large-scale colonial endeavors. Socially, the rise of nationalism and the expansion of religious missions also played a role in justifying and sustaining colonization. The development of colonial institutions, including administrative structures and legal frameworks, further facilitated the establishment and maintenance of European empires. This convergence of technological prowess, economic interests, political ambitions, and social motivations created a favorable environment for European colonial success during the Age of Exploration and beyond.

The Isolationism of China and Japan

Both China and Japan pursued isolationist policies during the period between 1450 and 1750 for distinct reasons, although the motivations were rooted in maintaining political stability, cultural preservation, and control over foreign influences.

China

Ming Dynasty’s Foreign Policy: The Ming Dynasty, ruling China during this period, implemented a policy known as the haijin, or “sea ban,” restricting maritime trade and exploration. This was partly in response to the Ming emperor’s perception that maritime ventures and trade were contributing to social unrest and corruption.

Fear of Foreign Influence: The Chinese leadership was concerned about the influence of foreign ideas and religions. The memory of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, which had been foreign-led, contributed to a desire to maintain Chinese cultural and political purity.

Self-Sufficiency: China, with its vast and resource-rich territory, felt relatively self-sufficient and didn’t see a pressing need for extensive foreign trade. The focus was on internal development and stability.

Japan

Tokugawa Shogunate: Japan, under the Tokugawa shogunate, implemented the sakoku policy, which means “closed country.” This policy aimed to control foreign influences and maintain domestic peace.

Fear of Colonialism: Japan had witnessed the impact of European colonization in other parts of Asia and was concerned about being subjected to similar pressures. Closing off the country was seen as a way to prevent colonization and maintain sovereignty.

Control over Daimyo: The Tokugawa shogunate sought to consolidate power and control the regional daimyo (feudal lords). By restricting foreign interactions, they could limit the possibility of alliances against the shogunate.