Independence Movements in Latin America for AP World History

The Age of Exploration led to the colonization of the Americas and unprecedented changes in Europe. Europeans settled in the Americas, but soon tired of colonial rule. The colonists wanted their independence from Europe. Read the Google Slides to learn more about how the countries in Latin America gained their independence.

Independence Movements in Latin America

Latin American peoples resisted European colonization, attempting to assert their independence. However, the introduction of superior weaponry and devastating diseases by the colonizers made victory seemingly insurmountable. Despite persistent native revolts over the centuries, success remained elusive. However, the colonists who came to Latin America eventually began to unite with the native people to fight the colonizing nations.

During the early 19th century, with the distraction caused by the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, many Latin American colonists found a more favorable environment for successful uprisings. The chaos in Europe weakened colonial authorities, providing a crucial window of opportunity for figures like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín to lead movements that ultimately achieved the independence of various Latin American nations. The Napoleonic Wars inadvertently reshaped the balance of power, allowing long-held aspirations for autonomy to be realized.

Haiti

In the late 18th century, Haiti, a French colony, bore witness to a tumultuous struggle for independence that profoundly impacted the course of history. Enslaved Africans, toiling on plantations owned by French colonists engaged in the cultivation of lucrative crops like coffee, sugar, cocoa, and indigo, endured abysmal living conditions. By 1800, the overwhelming majority of Haiti’s population lived in the shackles of enslavement. In 1801, Toussaint L’Ouverture, a former slave, spearheaded a violent revolt against the oppressive French regime. Responding to the threat, Napoleon dispatched a formidable force of 20,000 troops, only to be met with staunch resistance and a devastating outbreak of yellow fever, leading to significant casualties among the invaders. Despite L’Ouverture’s capture and imprisonment, one of his lieutenants, Jacques Dessalines, proclaimed Haiti a free republic in 1804, assuming the role of governor-general for life. This triumph over adversity marked the culmination of an extraordinary struggle for freedom and self-determination, leaving an indelible mark on the legacy of the Haitian people.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

Toussaint L’Ouverture, a pivotal figure in the Haitian Revolution, was a former slave who emerged as a prominent leader in the fight for Haiti’s independence. Born into slavery in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) in the 18th century, L’Ouverture rose to prominence during the turbulent times of French colonial rule. His remarkable leadership skills and strategic acumen became evident in 1801 when he orchestrated a violent slave revolt against the oppressive French authorities.

L’Ouverture’s military prowess and ability to forge alliances allowed him to successfully resist Napoleon’s dispatched troops, who sought to quell the uprising. Despite his capture and imprisonment by the French, L’Ouverture’s legacy endured. His actions laid the groundwork for further resistance, ultimately leading to the proclamation of Haiti as a free republic in 1804. Pierre Toussaint L’Ouverture remains an iconic figure, symbolizing resilience and determination in the face of injustice, and his contributions are integral to the narrative of Haiti’s fight for independence.

Boukman

Boukman was a key figure in the Haitian Revolution, particularly known for his role in the early stages of the uprising that ultimately led to Haiti’s independence. Toussaint Louverture, a former enslaved person who became a revolutionary leader, initiated the revolution in 1791. However, it was Boukman Dutty, a Vodou priest and enslaved African, who is believed to have played a crucial role in inspiring and leading the initial slave uprising.

On the night of August 14, 1791, Boukman presided over a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caïman, a hidden location in the northern mountains of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti). During this ceremony, Boukman delivered a passionate call for freedom and unity among the enslaved population. This event is often regarded as the spark that ignited the Haitian Revolution. The uprising that followed eventually led to the abolition of slavery and the establishment of Haiti as the first independent Black republic in the world in 1804. Despite his early leadership role, Boukman was killed by the French in November 1791. His legacy, however, lives on as a symbol of resistance and the fight for freedom in Haitian history.

Gens De Couleur

“Gens de couleur” is a French term that translates to “people of color.” In the context of Haiti, it historically referred to individuals of mixed-race heritage, typically of African and European descent. The Gens de Couleur played a significant role in the complex social and political landscape of colonial and post-colonial Haiti.

During the era of French colonization in Saint-Domingue (the colonial name for Haiti), the Gens de Couleur occupied a unique position in society. They were often born to enslaved African women and European fathers, and some gained their freedom through manumission or other means. While they were not subjected to the same level of oppression as enslaved individuals, Gens de Couleur still faced racial discrimination and legal restrictions.

In the late 18th century, as tensions grew between the enslaved population and the French colonial rulers, Gens de Couleur played roles in both the struggle for freedom and in maintaining social order. Many joined the revolutionary cause, seeking greater rights and equality. However, their status and aspirations led to complex dynamics within the broader fight for Haitian independence.

After the successful Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) resulted in the establishment of the independent Republic of Haiti, Gens de Couleur continued to play significant roles in the new nation. They formed a distinct social group, and some individuals became part of the country’s political and military leadership. However, tensions persisted between Gens de Couleur and the newly emerging Black political elite, contributing to social and political complexities in the early years of independent Haiti.

Simón Bolivar

Simón Bolívar was born in Caracas, a city in present-day Venezuela, on July 24, 1783, into a wealthy Creole family. At this time, a Creole was someone who was of Spanish descent but who was born in South America.

In 1808, Napoleon named his brother Joseph Bonaparte, the Spanish king, triggering resistance in the Spanish colonies. The colonists in South America remained loyal to the original Spanish king and ousted Napoleon’s government in Venezuela. In this context, Simón Bolívar, recognizing the opportunity for liberation, became a prominent leader in the fight against Spanish rule. The loyalists to the Spanish king declared civil war, leading to a protracted struggle for freedom in modern-day Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela over the next decade. Bolívar, often called “El Libertador,” envisioned a united South America akin to the United States. Despite his efforts, the dream of a unified continent did not materialize, and South America fragmented into separate nations. Bolívar’s legacy, however, endures as a symbol of the region’s aspiration for independence and unity.

José de San Martín

José de San Martín, a pivotal figure in South American independence, emerged against the backdrop of Napoleonic influence. Born in 1778 in Argentina, San Martín’s military trajectory began in the Spanish army. However, the invasion of Spain by Napoleon’s forces and the imposition of a French governor in Argentina sparked San Martín’s fervent commitment to the cause of independence. Rejecting both Spanish and French rule, he became a leading architect of liberation. His strategic brilliance became evident in campaigns across the continent, particularly in the liberation of Chile, where he secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Maipú in 1818. San Martín then directed his efforts towards Peru, orchestrating a daring expedition that led to the proclamation of independence in 1821. Understanding the importance of collaboration, he met with Simón Bolívar in 1822 to chart the course for liberated South America. San Martín’s legacy as a visionary military leader and champion of sovereignty endures, emphasizing the profound impact of Napoleonic actions in catalyzing the movement for independence in the region.

Brazil

Brazil’s journey from a colony to a republic was marked by a series of transformative events. In the early 19th century, when Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal, King John VI of Portugal sought refuge in Brazil. His presence in Rio de Janeiro from 1808 to 1821 altered the dynamics of the colony, as Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese Empire. When Napoleon was defeated, King John VI returned to Portugal, leaving his son Pedro as regent in Brazil. Pedro, however, felt a deep connection to Brazil and, in a pivotal moment in 1822, declared the country’s independence and crowned himself Emperor Pedro I. This marked the beginning of the Brazilian Empire. Pedro I abdicated in favor of his son, Pedro II, in 1831. During Pedro II’s rule, his daughter Isabel served as regent and later, as emperor, she made the bold move to outlaw slavery in 1888. This decision angered wealthy landowners, leading to a revolt. In 1889, fed up with the monarchy, they declared Brazil a republic, ending the era of imperial rule and shaping the nation’s path toward a new form of governance.

Mexico

The French Revolution sparked ideas of freedom and equality that resonated across the Atlantic, reaching Mexico. This inspiration, combined with the chaos caused by Napoleon’s invasion of Spain in 1808 and the resulting power vacuum, fueled a growing desire for independence among Mexican intellectuals and elites. With King Ferdinand VII of Spain abdicating, questions arose about the legitimacy of Spanish rule in its colonies. In this context, Mexican patriots saw an opportunity and, on September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo’s Grito de Dolores marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence.

Hidalgo’s leadership brought together a diverse coalition of insurgents, including indigenous people, mestizos, and Creoles, who shared the common goal of liberation. However, Hidalgo’s forces faced setbacks, and he was eventually captured and executed in 1811.

The mantle of leadership passed to José María Morelos, a former student of Hidalgo. Morelos proved to be a strategic and capable leader, advancing the cause of independence. In 1813, the Congress of Chilpancingo, convened by Morelos, drafted the first constitution for Mexico, emphasizing principles of equality and land reform. Despite his accomplishments, Morelos, too, faced challenges, and he was captured and executed in 1815.

It wasn’t until September 27, 1821, that Mexican independence was achieved with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba. By this time, the landowning classes of Mexico had realized the value in separating from Spain, and their participation in the fight for independence made all the difference.

Miguel Hidalgo

Miguel Hidalgo, a Catholic priest born in 1753, played a crucial role in Mexico’s fight for independence. His famous Grito de Dolores on September 16, 1810, marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. Hidalgo rallied people from various backgrounds, including indigenous and mestizo communities, against Spanish rule. Despite initial successes, he was captured and executed in 1811. While Hidalgo didn’t live to see Mexico gain independence, his bold actions and leadership laid the foundation for the country’s eventual liberation, making him a key figure in Mexican history.

The Grito de Delores

Miguel Hidalgo’s Grito de Dolores, delivered on September 16, 1810, served as the rallying cry that ignited the Mexican War of Independence. As a Catholic priest, Hidalgo called upon his parishioners in the town of Dolores to rise against Spanish colonial rule. This pivotal moment marked the beginning of a movement for freedom and equality in Mexico. Hidalgo’s impassioned speech resonated across different social classes, attracting a diverse coalition of insurgents. The Grito de Dolores is now celebrated annually as Mexico’s Independence Day, symbolizing the enduring spirit of resistance and the quest for self-determination.

José María Morelos

José María Morelos, a key figure in Mexico’s quest for independence, emerged as a leader following the execution of Miguel Hidalgo. Born in 1765, Morelos, a former student of Hidalgo, took up the mantle of leadership and continued the fight against Spanish rule. Known for his strategic acumen, Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813, which drafted Mexico’s first constitution. This groundbreaking document emphasized principles of equality, land reform, and the abolition of slavery.

Despite his military successes and visionary contributions, Morelos faced challenges, leading to his capture and execution in 1815. His legacy endures as a symbol of resilience and determination in the struggle for Mexican independence, and his efforts laid the groundwork for the eventual triumph of the Mexican people.

The Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution, ignited in 1910, was a multifaceted struggle that sought to address longstanding issues of inequality, land distribution, and political disenfranchisement. Fueled by the dissatisfaction with the long-standing rule of Porfirio Díaz, various factions, including peasants, workers, and intellectuals, rallied for social and political change. Led by figures like Francisco Madero, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa, the revolution evolved into a complex and protracted conflict. The revolutionary forces aimed at dismantling the oligarchic system, demanding agrarian reforms and greater representation. Although the revolution brought about significant social and political changes, it also unleashed violence and internal divisions. The 1917 Constitution, a product of the revolution, laid the foundation for a more inclusive and democratic Mexico. While the revolution’s immediate outcomes were mixed, it remains a transformative chapter in Mexican history, symbolizing the struggle for justice, land, and a more equitable society.

Porfirio Díaz

Porfirio Díaz’s prolonged rule in Mexico, from 1876 to 1880 and then again from 1884 to 1911, played a pivotal role in sparking the Mexican Revolution. While his presidency initially brought about economic modernization and stability, Díaz’s regime became increasingly characterized by authoritarianism, political repression, and economic inequality. Díaz’s policies favored the elite, leading to the concentration of wealth and land in the hands of a few, while the majority of the population faced disenfranchisement and poverty. The lack of political pluralism and the exclusion of various social groups from the political process fueled widespread discontent. The Mexican Revolution of 1910 was, in essence, a response to the deeply rooted social, economic, and political issues exacerbated by Díaz’s prolonged and authoritarian rule. His regime’s failure to address these underlying problems eventually led to widespread unrest and armed conflict that marked the beginning of a new era in Mexican history.

Francisco Madero

played a pivotal role in the Mexican Revolution, which erupted in 1910. Born into a wealthy landowning family in 1873, Madero was propelled into politics due to his dissatisfaction with Porfirio Díaz’s prolonged and authoritarian rule. Madero’s call for democratic reforms and free elections resonated with a diverse range of discontented groups, including peasants and workers. In 1910, he issued the Plan of San Luis Potosí, a manifesto that called for the overthrow of Díaz and the restoration of democratic governance. The subsequent armed conflict saw Madero’s forces successfully challenging Díaz’s regime, leading to Díaz’s resignation in 1911. Madero assumed the presidency, but his vision for reform faced internal challenges and external opposition from various factions within the revolutionary movement. His presidency was marked by ongoing unrest, and in 1913, he was overthrown and executed in a coup led by General Victoriano Huerta.

Emiliano Zapata

Emiliano Zapata, a central figure in the Mexican Revolution, emerged as a champion for agrarian rights and social justice. Born in 1879, Zapata was a charismatic leader from the southern state of Morelos. He became a prominent force within the revolutionary movement, particularly known for his articulation of the Plan of Ayala in 1911, a document that demanded land reform and the return of communal lands to peasants. Zapata’s “Land and Liberty” slogan encapsulated his commitment to addressing the profound inequalities in land distribution that characterized rural Mexico. As the leader of the Liberation Army of the South, Zapata fought against both Porfirio Díaz’s regime and later, against the government of Francisco Madero when he perceived a failure to fulfill the promises of land reform. Zapata’s advocacy for the rural poor and his vision of agrarian reform left an enduring legacy, although his life was cut short when he was assassinated in 1919. His iconic figure and the principles he fought for continue to symbolize the ongoing struggle for social justice in Mexico.

Pancho Villa

Pancho Villa, born Doroteo Arango in 1878, was a key figure in the Mexican Revolution. Known for his military skills and popular support, Villa led the Division of the North and played a crucial role in overthrowing the regime of Victoriano Huerta. Villa advocated for agrarian reform and the rights of the rural poor, making him a folk hero. However, conflicts with other revolutionary leaders, like Venustiano Carranza, led to internal strife. Villa’s later years were marked by political and military challenges, reflecting the complexities of the Mexican Revolution. His legacy, a mix of military prowess and populist ideals, remains an enduring part of Mexican history.

Neocolonialism

Neocolonialism in the Americas, particularly in the aftermath of the wars of independence, refers to the continued economic and political dominance of European powers, notably former colonial rulers. Following the formal independence of many Latin American nations in the 19th century, European nations, especially Britain and France, sought to maintain control by manipulating economic ties. They established financial systems that favored foreign investors, ensuring a continuous flow of wealth back to Europe. Multinational corporations further exploited the economic vulnerabilities of newly independent states, maintaining a grip on key industries and resources. This neocolonial relationship benefited European powers by sustaining economic advantages and securing access to the region’s wealth. Despite the political liberation of Latin American countries, neocolonialism underscored the ongoing economic subjugation and challenges to achieving true independence.

The Catholic Church and Latin America

Following the wars of independence in Latin America, the influence of the Catholic Church played a complex role in the post-colonial era. While many clergy members actively participated in the struggles for independence, fighting and even dying for the rights of the poor, the Church’s institutional stance often maintained the status quo. Despite individual efforts by clergy to advocate for social justice, the Church as an institution remained one of the largest landowners, holding significant economic and political power. This duality reflected the complexities of the Church’s role in the region, simultaneously championing social justice causes on an individual level while being deeply enmeshed in the established power structures and economic interests of the time.

Independent but Not Free

The wars of independence in the early 19th century, while bringing liberation to many, left certain groups, particularly slaves in the United States and peasants in South America, without the promised freedom. In the United States, despite the rhetoric of freedom during the American Revolution, slavery persisted, and African Americans remained in bondage. The ideals of liberty and equality were not extended to all, highlighting the contradiction between the pursuit of freedom and the institutionalized practice of slavery. In South America, peasants who had played a significant role in the fight for independence often found themselves marginalized after the wars. The socioeconomic structures and land distribution remained largely unchanged, leaving many peasants in a state of continued oppression and economic struggle. The uneven outcomes of the wars of independence underscored the limitations in achieving comprehensive liberation for all segments of society.

Unit 5: Revolutions

AP World History