Imperialism in Africa from 1750 to 1900

Dec 8, 2023

10 min read

While European and Asian powers had been interacting with Africa since before the Romans, the vast majority of the continent remained unexplored and unexploited. This changed with the Berlin Conference. Read the slides to learn about how European imperialism reached the heart of Africa between 1750 and 1900.

A Brief History of Europe and Africa

Africa’s contact with Europe up until the 1700s encompassed a rich tapestry of interactions. In earlier eras, Mediterranean civilizations like the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans engaged with North Africa. The spread of Islam during the seventh century left an enduring impact, with parts of Africa embracing the religion through trade routes and cultural exchanges. During the Age of Exploration, Portuguese navigators charted the West African coast, establishing trade connections and seeking valuable resources. As the transatlantic slave trade unfolded, millions of Africans were forcibly taken to the Americas. Notably, while coastal regions experienced European influence, Africa’s vast interior remained largely unexplored. These historical dynamics laid the foundation for the complex intercontinental relationships that would evolve in the subsequent centuries.

The End of the Slave Trade

The end of the transatlantic slave trade marked a pivotal moment in history, driven by shifting moral sentiments, evolving economic structures, and the tireless efforts of abolitionists. The 19th century witnessed a growing global movement against the inhumanity of slavery, with nations and individuals advocating for its abolition. Britain’s abolition of the slave trade in 1807, followed by the United States in 1808, set the stage for a broader international movement. The efforts of abolitionists, coupled with the horrors of the Middle Passage and the growing realization of the inhumanity of slavery, fueled momentum. The Atlantic slave trade officially ended with the signing of the Atlantic Slave Trade Treaty in 1842, and by the mid-19th century, many nations had outlawed slavery altogether, although the United States would not end slavery until after the Civil War in 1865. The end of the slave trade marked a triumph for human rights and justice, though the legacies of slavery persisted, shaping social, economic, and political landscapes for generations to come.

South Africa

The Dutch played a pivotal role in shaping the history of South Africa. In the mid-17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station at the Cape of Good Hope to provide provisions for ships en route to the East Indies. Over time, this station evolved into a colony as Dutch settlers, known as Afrikaners or Boers, began to establish farms and settlements in the region. These early European arrivals encountered the indigenous Khoikhoi and San peoples, leading to cultural and economic exchanges, as well as conflicts. The Dutch influence laid the foundation for the distinctive Afrikaner culture and language.

The British, eyeing strategic control of the Cape, took possession in the early 19th century. The Boers were forced to move inland to a region known as Transvaal. In 1867, the Boers discovered diamonds and later gold. The British were determined to take control of the diamond and gold mines. The Boers and the British fought for years in the Boer War (1880 – 1881 and 1899 – 1902). It was devestating for both sides and especially the native Africans who recieved no payment for their natural resources and were forced to work in the mines and for the troops. Eventually, the British Empire was victorious, and South Africa became a colony of the Crown.

Egypt

In the late 18th century, Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire. However, the Ottoman Empire was extremely week at this time, and it was the local leaders known as beys who had most of the power.

Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798, seeking to disrupt British trade routes to India and establish French influence in the region. The French forces, under Napoleon’s command, initially faced little resistance and successfully occupied Egypt. However, their hold on the region was short-lived.

In 1801, British and Ottoman forces, including an Ottoman-Albanian commander named Muhammad Ali Pasha, joined efforts to drive the French out of Egypt. This military intervention, known as the Battle of Alexandria, ultimately led to the French surrender in 1801, and they evacuated Egypt in 1802.

Muhammad Ali Pasha became the viceroy of Egypt for the Ottoman Empire. He worked to industrialize Egypt, including increasing cotton production which he sold to factories in Britain. Muhammad Ali Pasha reigned in Egypt until his death in 1848. The modernization of Egypt continued with his successors, including his grandson, Abbas I.

Muhammad Ali Pasha

Muhammad Ali Pasha, an ambitious and skilled Albanian military officer, rose to prominence in the early 19th century, forever altering the course of Egyptian history. Sent by the Ottoman Empire to quell an uprising in 1805, Muhammad Ali instead seized control of Egypt, establishing himself as its de facto ruler. Renowned for his military prowess, Muhammad Ali initiated a series of transformative reforms that aimed at modernizing Egypt across various sectors. His efforts included the introduction of cash crops, industrialization, and the creation of a conscripted army. Muhammad Ali’s rule marked a departure from Ottoman control, setting the stage for Egypt’s pursuit of economic and military strength. While his reign faced internal challenges and opposition, his legacy endured through his successors, shaping Egypt’s trajectory toward modernization and independence in the years to come.

The Suez Canal

The construction of the Suez Canal was conceived by the visionary ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha, the canal aimed to provide a direct maritime route connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, thereby facilitating faster and more efficient trade between Europe and Asia. The canal’s construction, led by French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps and completed in 1869, was a testament to Egypt’s ambition to position itself as a crucial hub for global commerce. The Suez Canal not only promised economic benefits through toll revenues and increased maritime traffic but also held strategic significance by reducing the time and distance of the traditional sea route around the southern tip of Africa.

The canal, completed in 1869, was initially financed and largely owned by French and British investors. However, when Egypt faced financial troubles in the late 19th century, including the bankruptcy of the Egyptian government, Britain seized the opportunity to increase its influence. In 1875, the British government purchased the shares of the canal from the financially strapped Egyptian ruler Isma’il Pasha, a descendant of Muhammad Ali Pasha, thereby gaining a significant stake in the Suez Canal Company. This move allowed the British to exert considerable control over the strategic waterway, vital for their maritime route to India and the Far East.

King Leopold I of Belgium

In the early 19th century, Belgium was part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, formed in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. However, discontent grew in Belgium due to cultural, linguistic, and religious differences with the Dutch north. In 1830, a revolution erupted in Brussels, leading to the Belgian War of Independence.

Amidst the upheaval, the National Congress of Belgium convened in 1830 to draft a new constitution and decide on the nation’s future. The Congress chose a constitutional monarchy, and the search for a suitable monarch began. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, a German prince who had been widowed twice, emerged as a candidate. His diplomatic experience and connections made him an attractive choice, and he was elected as the first King of the Belgians on June 4, 1831.

Leopold I took the oath and assumed the throne on July 21, 1831, marking the official establishment of the independent Kingdom of Belgium. Leopold I played a crucial role in stabilizing the newly formed nation and ensuring its recognition by other European powers.

King Leopold II of Belgium

King Leopold II of Belgium played a pivotal role in shaping the context that led to the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. Motivated by imperial ambitions and driven by a desire for personal wealth, Leopold pursued the establishment of the Congo Free State in Africa. In the late 19th century, he employed the services of explorers like Henry Morton Stanley to exploit the Congo’s vast resources, including rubber and ivory. Leopold’s brutal and exploitative practices, marked by forced labor and atrocities against the Congolese population, drew international attention and condemnation. To legitimize his control over the Congo, Leopold sought international recognition. The Berlin Conference, convened to regulate and legitimize European colonization in Africa, provided the platform for this recognition. In 1884, European powers, including Belgium, gathered to delineate spheres of influence, set rules for colonialism, and establish boundaries in Africa. The decisions made during the Berlin Conference formalized Leopold’s claim over the Congo and set the stage for the subsequent and broader partitioning of Africa among European powers, contributing to a legacy of exploitation and suffering on the continent.

The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 was a watershed event in the era of European imperialism and the scramble for Africa. Triggered by the rising competition among European powers for territorial control in Africa, the conference aimed to establish ground rules for the partition and colonization of the continent. The major European powers, including Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, and Belgium, convened in Berlin to negotiate spheres of influence and delineate borders without consulting or considering the wishes of African populations. The conference resulted in the creation of artificial boundaries, often cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, leading to a legacy of geopolitical challenges for newly formed African nations. The lack of African representation at the conference reinforced the unequal power dynamics of imperialism. The partitioning of Africa at the Berlin Conference is widely considered a major factor contributing to the subsequent exploitation, conflict, and struggles for independence across the African continent. The arbitrary divisions made without regard for historical, cultural, or tribal realities set the stage for complex issues that would persist long after the colonial era.

Spheres of Influence from the Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 led to the partition and carving up of Africa among European powers, resulting in the creation of several colonies and spheres of influence. Some of the countries directly affected by the decisions of the Berlin Conference include:

Congo Free State: Recognized as the personal property of King Leopold II of Belgium, the Congo Free State (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) was established as a private venture for economic exploitation, leading to one of the most notorious periods of exploitation and abuse in colonial history.

German East Africa: The German Empire acquired control over territories that would later become Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi. German East Africa lasted until World War I when the League of Nations mandated the territories to Britain and Belgium.

German Southwest Africa: Present-day Namibia was placed under German control during the Berlin Conference. After World War I, it came under South African administration, leading to the establishment of apartheid policies.

French West Africa: This region comprised several colonies, including Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Ivory Coast, Guinea, and Benin. These territories were organized into a federation under French colonial rule.

French Equatorial Africa: Comprising Gabon, Congo-Brazzaville, Chad, and the Central African Republic, this federation was established by the French authorities as part of the decisions made during the Berlin Conference.

British East Africa: The territories that would later become Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika (now part of Tanzania) fell under British control. These territories were strategically important for British imperial interests, particularly the construction of the Uganda Railway.

African Reactions to European Powers

Africans resisted European colonial rule and exploitation, both before and after the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. However, understanding the complexities of these resistance movements requires considering several factors:

Technological Disparities: European colonial powers possessed advanced military technologies, including firearms and artillery, which often surpassed the weaponry of African societies. This technological asymmetry gave Europeans a significant advantage in direct confrontations.

Divide and Rule: The artificial borders created during the Berlin Conference often cut across existing ethnic, cultural, and linguistic lines. European powers exploited these divisions, fostering rivalries among different ethnic groups to weaken unified resistance.

Internal Strife: Some African societies faced internal conflicts and power struggles that predated European colonization. European powers often exploited these internal tensions to their advantage, either by supporting one faction against another or by playing groups against each other.

Diplomacy and Treaties: European powers often utilized diplomacy and the signing of treaties with local leaders to legitimize their presence. These treaties, however, were frequently deceptive and advantageous to the colonial powers.

Economic Dependence: European powers established economic systems that were often exploitative, tying African economies to the global market. This economic dependency made it challenging for African societies to resist entirely without facing severe economic consequences.

Military Suppression: European powers could employ military force to crush resistance movements. For instance, the Maji Maji Rebellion in German East Africa (now Tanzania) (1905-1907) and the Anglo-Ashanti Wars in West Africa (1900) are examples of African resistance movements that faced harsh military suppression.

While armed resistance was one form of opposition, Africans also engaged in various non-violent forms of resistance, including political activism, protests, and cultural preservation. Over time, these forms of resistance, along with global shifts in public opinion and geopolitical considerations, contributed to the ultimate unraveling of colonial rule in Africa during the mid-20th century.

Comparing Colonization in Africa and Latin America

Imperialism and colonization were complex historical processes that significantly impacted both Africa and Latin America, but they manifested in different ways due to variations in historical context, actors involved, and the nature of colonial rule.

Similarities

Africa: European imperial powers sought to extract valuable resources such as rubber, diamonds, gold, and later, minerals like copper and uranium.

Latin America: Colonizers targeted resources like precious metals (gold and silver), agricultural products (sugar, coffee), and natural resources (timber).

Africa: The imposition of European cultures often led to the erosion of indigenous traditions, languages, and social structures.

Latin America: Indigenous cultures were often marginalized or assimilated into European norms, resulting in a blending of cultures.

Africa: Control over territories was divided among European powers according to the decisions made at conferences like the Berlin Conference (1884-1885).

Latin America: Colonization was often characterized by competing European powers and rivalries among them, such as the Spanish and Portuguese.

Differences

Africa: Colonized by a variety of European powers, including Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, and Portugal.

Latin America: Primarily colonized by Spain and Portugal, with some territories under the influence of other European powers.

Africa: Experiences varied, including direct rule, indirect rule, and settler colonialism, depending on the colonial power and the region.

Latin America: Characterized by direct rule, with European settlers establishing colonies and exploiting indigenous labor for resource extraction.

Africa: Saw the imposition of forced labor systems, such as the use of indigenous people as laborers and the Atlantic slave trade.

Latin America: The encomienda system and later forms of coerced labor, including African slavery, played a crucial role in resource extraction.

Africa: The mid-20th century witnessed a wave of independence movements, often characterized by armed struggle and political activism.

Latin America: Experienced a series of independence movements in the early 19th century, influenced by ideas of Enlightenment and French and American revolutions.