Continuity and Change in Europe for AP World History

Jan 16

14 min read

The time period between 1450 and 1750 brought significant change to the entire world especially Europe. Europe transformed from a collection of feudal kingdoms to nation-states and empires with colonies across the globe. This shift in the power dynamics led to changes in social structures as well. Read the Google Slides to get an overview of the continuity and change in Europe between 1450 and 1750.

Technological Advancements

The age of transoceanic voyages, a pivotal period during the Age of Exploration (15th-17th centuries), was made possible through significant technological advancements and innovations. Among the key developments was the refinement of navigational instruments. The astrolabe, compass, and quadrant allowed sailors to determine their position at sea with greater accuracy, facilitating navigation beyond coastal waters. Additionally, the perfection of the magnetic compass enabled mariners to maintain a consistent heading despite variations in wind and weather.

Innovations in ship design were crucial to the success of transoceanic voyages. The caravel, a nimble and versatile vessel, became a prominent choice for explorers. Its combination of lateen sails and improved hull design allowed for better maneuverability and facilitated long-distance travel. The carrack, with its larger cargo capacity, played a pivotal role in transporting goods and people across vast oceans.

Advancements in cartography and mapmaking were equally instrumental. The creation of more accurate and detailed maps, incorporating information gathered from various voyages, improved navigational planning.

Furthermore, the development of gunpowder and firearms had profound implications for maritime exploration. Not only did cannons serve as defensive weaponry against potential threats, but they also became instrumental in establishing European dominance in encounters with indigenous peoples.

Overall, the convergence of navigational instruments, ship design, cartography, and weaponry constituted a technological revolution that made transoceanic voyages conceivable and, ultimately, successful. These innovations transformed the world by opening up new sea routes, facilitating global trade, and connecting distant cultures in ways that were previously unimaginable.

The Impact of Colonization in the Americas

The colonization of the Americas in the early modern period had profound and far-reaching impacts on Europe, Asia, and Africa, reshaping economies, societies, and cultures across continents. In Europe, the influx of wealth from the Americas fueled economic expansion, particularly through the extraction of precious metals like gold and silver. This influx of wealth contributed to the rise of capitalism, financed trade ventures, and supported the growth of powerful nation-states. Simultaneously, the introduction of new crops, such as potatoes and maize from the Americas, enhanced European diets and promoted population growth.

In Asia, the impact of American colonization was complex. The establishment of global trade routes, known as the Columbian Exchange, facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas between the Old and New Worlds. While Asian economies experienced economic benefits through increased trade, they also faced challenges such as competition from European powers and the disruption of established trade routes.

In Africa, the consequences of American colonization were interconnected with the transatlantic slave trade. The demand for labor in the Americas led to the enslavement of millions of Africans,

causing profound demographic shifts on the continent. The slave trade had devastating social, economic, and cultural consequences for African societies, contributing to the development of a system of European-controlled coastal forts and trading posts.

The cultural exchange between the Americas and the Old World was also significant. The exchange of crops, animals, and ideas transformed diets, agricultural practices, and lifestyles on a global scale. However, the colonization of the Americas also brought about cultural clashes and the imposition of European languages, religions, and societal norms on indigenous populations, leading to the erosion of traditional ways of life.

Overall, the colonization of the Americas had a multifaceted impact on Europe, Asia, and Africa, shaping the course of history and influencing economic, social, and cultural developments. The interconnectedness forged through the Columbian Exchange and the exploitation of resources from the Americas set the stage for the emergence of a globalized world with complex and often unequal power dynamics.

The Renaissance

The Renaissance, a cultural and intellectual movement that spanned roughly from the 14th to the 17th century, marked a profound shift in European history. Emerging from the ashes of the medieval period, the Renaissance was characterized by a renewed interest in classical antiquity, a revival of arts and learning, and a transformation in the way individuals perceived themselves and the world. Originating in Italy, the Renaissance saw a resurgence of humanism, an intellectual movement that celebrated human achievements and emphasized the value of individual potential. Scholars and artists delved into classical texts, rediscovering ancient wisdom and inspiring new avenues of thought. The invention of the printing press played a pivotal role in disseminating knowledge, making literature and ideas more accessible to a broader audience.

Art flourished during the Renaissance, with painters such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael creating masterpieces that showcased technical skill and a deep appreciation for human anatomy and emotion. Architecture witnessed a revival of classical styles, as seen in the works of Filippo Brunelleschi and Andrea Palladio.

The Renaissance was not confined to the arts; it influenced science, philosophy, and politics. Thinkers like Copernicus and Galileo challenged traditional cosmology, ushering in a scientific revolution. The concept of individualism gained prominence, leading to shifts in social and political structures.

While the Renaissance had its roots in Italy, its spirit spread throughout Europe, influencing different regions and shaping the trajectory of Western civilization. This era laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment and paved the way for the modern world, leaving a lasting legacy in the realms of art, literature, science, and human thought.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement that swept across Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, represented a profound shift in the way people perceived the world and their place in it. Emerging in the aftermath of religious conflicts and the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment was characterized by an emphasis on reason, skepticism of traditional authority, and a commitment to the pursuit of knowledge. Enlightenment thinkers, known as philosophes, championed reason as the key to understanding and improving society. They sought to apply scientific methods to the study of human nature, politics, and society. Influenced by the scientific advancements of the time, the Enlightenment questioned established norms and beliefs, advocating for individual rights, religious tolerance, and the separation of church and state. Key figures such as John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau contributed to the development of Enlightenment ideas, which influenced political movements like the American and French Revolutions. The Enlightenment fostered a spirit of intellectual inquiry, encouraging people to question authority, challenge dogma, and envision a society based on reason, liberty, and progress. Its impact resonates in the principles of modern democracy, human rights, and the scientific method, making it a pivotal period in the evolution of human thought.

The Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation, ignited by Martin Luther’s 95 Theses in 1517, brought about profound changes in societal norms across Europe during the 16th century. Luther’s critique of the Catholic Church’s doctrines and practices challenged the religious authority that had long shaped European society. As the Reformation gained momentum, it led to a fragmentation of religious unity, with the emergence of various Protestant denominations challenging the dominance of the Catholic Church. This shift in religious allegiance altered societal norms by decentralizing religious authority and encouraging individual interpretation of scripture. The idea of a direct relationship between individuals and God, without the need for an intermediary clergy, fundamentally transformed the way people approached spirituality. This emphasis on personal faith fostered a sense of autonomy and responsibility among individuals.

The Reformation also had significant implications for family structures and gender roles. Protestantism promoted the idea that marriage was a legitimate and honorable state, contributing to a shift in attitudes towards family life. The notion of a “priesthood of all believers” extended to men and women alike, challenging traditional hierarchies within the family. While some Protestant reformers advocated for the importance of education for all, others supported the establishment of schools and universities, contributing to the gradual spread of literacy and knowledge among the general population.

Furthermore, the Reformation played a role in shaping political norms. The rise of Protestant states challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to political and religious conflicts. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 recognized the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism within the Holy Roman Empire, marking a departure from the notion of religious homogeneity within a state.

In essence, the Protestant Reformation altered societal norms in Europe by fostering a climate of religious pluralism, promoting individual interpretation of scripture, influencing family structures, and contributing to changes in political dynamics. The Reformation’s impact reverberated through centuries, shaping the cultural, social, and political landscape of Europe and leaving a lasting legacy in the evolution of Western societies.

The Peasantry

Between 1450 and 1750, the work of the peasantry underwent significant changes across Europe. In the earlier part of this period, feudalism dominated agricultural practices, and peasants worked the land under the manorial system. They were bound to the lord’s estate, often paying rent in the form of labor and produce. However, as the Renaissance and subsequent economic transformations unfolded, the nature of peasant labor began to evolve. Enclosure movements, spurred by the shift to more profitable agricultural methods, saw common lands being privatized, disrupting traditional communal farming practices. Technological advancements, such as the adoption of the three-field system and improved plowing techniques, increased agricultural productivity, altering the labor demands on peasants.

Additionally, the commercialization of agriculture led to a greater focus on producing goods for the market, transforming the subsistence-oriented work of peasants into a more market-oriented enterprise. The rise of capitalism and the decline of feudalism also contributed to changes in labor relations, with some peasants gaining a degree of autonomy through the emergence of tenant farming and leasehold arrangements. However, the period also witnessed challenges for peasants, including increased taxation and social upheavals, such as the enclosure riots and peasant uprisings.

Enclosure

The enclosure of British farming lands, a transformative process during the 18th and 19th centuries, involved the consolidation and privatization of previously communal or open-field lands. Driven by a quest for agricultural efficiency and economic incentives, landowners enclosed small, scattered plots into larger, consolidated farms. This restructuring was facilitated by the adoption of new technologies like the seed drill and improved plowing methods. While aimed at increasing productivity to meet the demands of a growing population, the enclosure process resulted in the displacement of small farmers and rural communities. As a consequence, it spurred urbanization as people migrated to cities in search of work, contributing to early industrialization. The legal reforms that accompanied this shift regulated land use and property rights, formalizing the privatization of land. Enclosure, therefore, not only transformed the agricultural landscape but also had profound social and economic implications, shaping the trajectory of British society during this period.

The Merchant Class

Between 1450 and 1750, Europe witnessed the remarkable rise of the merchant class, marking a significant shift in economic and social dynamics. The catalysts for this transformation were manifold, including the expansion of trade, technological innovations, and changing economic structures. With the Age of Exploration opening up new sea routes and connections to distant lands, merchants capitalized on global trade opportunities. Advances in navigation, such as the astrolabe and improved ship design, facilitated safer and more efficient transoceanic voyages. As a result, merchant networks expanded, connecting Europe with Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The emergence of joint-stock companies and early forms of banking allowed merchants to pool resources, mitigate risks, and finance large-scale ventures. The economic landscape shifted from the agrarian focus of the feudal system to a more commercial and capitalist orientation. This rise of the merchant class was particularly pronounced in urban centers, where vibrant markets and trade fairs became hubs of economic activity. The accumulation of wealth among merchants led to social changes, challenging traditional hierarchies based solely on land ownership. This period laid the groundwork for the later development of a capitalist economy, contributing to the profound transformations that characterized the early modern era in Europe.

Women in Europe

The period between 1450 and 1750 brought about significant changes for women in Europe, although the nature and extent of these transformations varied across regions and social classes. In the early part of this era, societal norms were largely grounded in feudal and patriarchal structures, limiting women’s roles to domestic duties and family responsibilities. However, the Renaissance and the subsequent Age of Enlightenment fostered an intellectual climate that questioned traditional gender norms. Educational opportunities for women expanded, particularly among the aristocracy and urban bourgeoisie, as reflected in the emergence of female intellectuals and writers.

Economic changes also influenced the status of women. The rise of capitalism and the expansion of trade created new economic opportunities, prompting some women to engage in entrepreneurial activities or participate in family businesses. However, these opportunities were often constrained by prevailing social expectations.

Religious shifts, such as the Protestant Reformation, introduced alternative perspectives on women’s roles. Protestantism, while reinforcing certain traditional values, also emphasized the importance of education, allowing some women to pursue learning and intellectual pursuits.

On the downside, the witch hunts that peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries represented a dark chapter for women during this period. Thousands of women, often marginalized and vulnerable, were accused of witchcraft, reflecting deep-seated fears and prejudices.

In the realm of politics, some women of noble birth exerted influence as regents or advisors, playing strategic roles in European courts. However, such instances were exceptions rather than the norm, and women’s political participation remained limited.

Overall, the period from 1450 to 1750 witnessed a complex interplay of factors influencing the status and opportunities for women in Europe. While some experienced expanded educational and economic opportunities, others faced persecution and constraints. These changes set the stage for further transformations in the following centuries as evolving social, economic, and intellectual currents continued to shape women’s roles in European societies.

Spain

Emergence: The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 united the regions of Aragon and Castile, forming the basis for the unification of Spain.

Key Events: The completion of the Reconquista in 1492 and the exploration and colonization of the Americas under figures like Christopher Columbus contributed to Spain’s emergence as a major European power.

The Reconquista

The Reconquista was a lengthy military campaign spanning from the 8th to the 15th century in the Iberian Peninsula. It aimed to reclaim territories from Muslim rule by Christian kingdoms. Beginning in 711, Islamic forces rapidly conquered much of the region. Over the centuries, Christian rulers gradually regained control through a series of military efforts, including key events like the Battle of Covadonga in 722 and the capture of Toledo in 1085. The Reconquista, driven by religious zeal and a quest to reclaim lands for Christianity, culminated in the capture of Granada in 1492 by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. This marked the completion of the Reconquista and the unification of Spain.

France

Emergence: The consolidation of power by the monarchy, particularly under Louis XI and subsequent rulers, contributed to the emergence of a more centralized and powerful France.

Key Events: The Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) against England and the establishment of the absolute monarchy under Louis XIV marked key periods in French state-building.

The Hundred Years’ War

The Hundred Years’ War, spanning from 1337 to 1453, was a protracted conflict between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France, with intermittent periods of peace and diplomatic negotiations. The war was triggered by disputes over territorial claims and succession rights to the French throne. Key factors included the English kings’ longstanding claims to French territories and the death of Charles IV of France without a direct male heir. Notable battles such as Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt showcased the effectiveness of the English longbow and marked significant moments in the conflict. Joan of Arc’s inspirational role in the latter stages of the war, particularly in the lifting of the siege of Orléans, had a notable impact. The conflict saw shifting alliances and internal strife within both kingdoms. The Treaty of Troyes in 1420 temporarily resolved the succession issue by recognizing Henry V of England as the heir to the French throne. However, the tide turned in favor of the French, led by Charles VII, and the war concluded with the French reclaiming their territories. The signing of the Treaty of Arras in 1435 and the Treaty of Picquigny in 1475 marked the end of hostilities. The Hundred Years’ War had significant consequences, including the development of national identities in England and France, changes in military tactics and technology, and the political and social impact of the conflict on both nations.

England

Emergence: The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) saw the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, leading to the establishment of the Tudor dynasty.

Key Events: The reigns of Henry VII, Henry VIII, and the Tudor monarchs, as well as the Glorious Revolution of 1688, played crucial roles in the formation of the constitutional monarchy.

The War of the Roses

The War of the Roses, a series of dynastic conflicts that unfolded in England from 1455 to 1487, was a bitter struggle for the English throne between two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of Lancaster and the House of York. The conflict was rooted in longstanding tensions, complex familial rivalries, and competing claims to the throne. The white rose symbolized the House of York, and the red rose represented the House of Lancaster, hence the name “War of the Roses.” Key battles, such as the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, marked critical turning points. The conflict reached its climax when Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian claimant, defeated Richard III, the last Yorkist king, at Bosworth. Henry Tudor then ascended to the throne as Henry VII, marking the beginning of the Tudor dynasty and effectively ending the War of the Roses. The war had profound consequences, including significant loss of noble life, the weakening of feudal power, and the establishment of the Tudor monarchy. The Wars of the Roses left an enduring legacy in English history, shaping the subsequent political landscape and influencing the development of the monarchy.

Portugal

Emergence: Portugal’s early engagement in overseas exploration and trade, led by figures like Prince Henry the Navigator, contributed to its prominence.

Key Events: The establishment of maritime trade routes, including the sea route to India, and the colonization of territories in Africa, Asia, and the Americas were pivotal for Portugal.

Netherlands

Emergence: The Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648) against Spanish rule led to the establishment of the Dutch Republic.

Key Events: The Dutch Republic became a major economic and naval power during the period, with Amsterdam emerging as a key financial center.

The Eighty Years’ War

The Eighty Years’ War, also known as the Dutch War of Independence, unfolded from 1568 to 1648 as a conflict between the Spanish Habsburg monarchy and the emerging Dutch Republic. Rooted in religious tensions and desires for autonomy, the war featured battles and sieges, with the northern provinces seeking independence. The Union of Utrecht in 1579 formalized the aspirations of the northern provinces, while the southern provinces aligned with Spanish rule. Notable events included the siege of Leiden and the Twelve Years’ Truce in 1609. Resuming hostilities, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic. This war established the Dutch Republic as a sovereign state, marking a crucial moment in its pursuit of religious and political freedom from Spanish rule. The Eighty Years’ War significantly influenced the destinies of both the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Empire.

Sweden

Emergence: Sweden’s role in the Thirty Years’ War and subsequent treaties, such as the Peace of Westphalia (1648), contributed to its emergence as a recognized nation-state.

Key Events: The reign of Gustavus Adolphus and Sweden’s military successes played a crucial role in shaping its status.

The Thirty Years’ War

The Thirty Years’ War, spanning from 1618 to 1648, originated in the Holy Roman Empire due to religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants. The conflict was triggered by the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618, during which two Catholic officials were thrown out of a window by Protestant nobles. This event escalated existing religious and political tensions, leading to a widespread and devastating war. The Holy Roman Empire became a battleground for shifting alliances and major powers, resulting in immense suffering, population decline, and economic devastation. The war concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which not only marked the end of hostilities but also redefined the political and religious landscape of the Holy Roman Empire. The peace treaties recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland and established a new balance of power in Europe, impacting the empire’s structure and contributing to its decline as a unified political entity.

Russia

Emergence: The expansion of the Russian state under Ivan the Terrible and subsequent rulers contributed to its emergence as a significant European power.

Key Events: The reign of Peter the Great in the late 17th and early 18th centuries marked a period of modernization and Europeanization for Russia.

Conflict Between European States

The rise of colonization and the growth of empires in Europe during the Age of Exploration and subsequent centuries significantly altered the geopolitical landscape, contributing to intense conflicts between states. As European powers expanded their overseas empires, competition for territorial control, trade routes, and valuable resources became increasingly fierce. The quest for colonies led to rivalries between nations seeking to establish dominance in lucrative regions, triggering conflicts that often extended far beyond European borders.

These imperial rivalries were driven by economic interests, as colonies provided access to wealth, raw materials, and new markets. The acquisition of colonies was seen as crucial for enhancing a nation’s economic standing, leading to fierce competition among European powers. The establishment of overseas empires also fueled nationalistic sentiments, with each state vying for prestige and influence on the global stage.

The struggle for supremacy was exemplified by the numerous wars and conflicts that unfolded, such as the Anglo-Spanish War, the Anglo-Dutch Wars, and the numerous conflicts between France and various coalitions of European states. The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which concluded the Thirty Years’ War, marked an attempt to establish a balance of power in Europe, but colonial competition continued to spark conflicts throughout subsequent centuries.

Naval power became a crucial element in these conflicts, as control of the seas was essential for securing overseas territories and trade routes. The development of powerful navies and maritime technology heightened the strategic importance of naval dominance in shaping the outcomes of imperial conflicts.

Ultimately, the rise of colonization and the growth of empires in Europe set the stage for persistent geopolitical rivalries and conflicts, shaping the course of European history.

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