Conducting World War I for AP World History

Feb 1

14 min read

In the last topic, we learned about the causes of World War I, also known as the Great War. In this section, we will look at an overview of the fighting of World War I. We will not discuss specific battles but will focus on the generalities of conducting the war. Read the Google Slides to learn about conducting World War I.

The Alliances that Led to the Great War

In response to the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary, already harboring resentment toward Serbia, issued an ultimatum to the Serbian government. The ultimatum’s harsh terms, fueled by a desire to suppress Slavic nationalism, included demands for Serbia to dismantle anti-Austrian activities and accept an Austro-Hungarian investigation into the assassination. Serbia’s partial acceptance of the ultimatum failed to satisfy Austria-Hungary, which, backed by Germany, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.

The chain reaction began as Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized its forces against Austria-Hungary. Germany, aligned with Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. France, bound by alliances with Russia, was drawn into the conflict, and Germany’s invasion of Belgium on August 4 prompted Britain to enter the war to honor its commitments. The Great War had begun.

The Schlieffen Plan

In the early 20th century, as Europe teetered on the brink of conflict, German Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen crafted a bold and ambitious plan that would come to be known as the Schlieffen Plan. This military strategy, devised around 1905-06, aimed to address Germany’s precarious position caught between the prospect of a two-front war against France in the west and Russia in the east.

In the grand design of the Schlieffen Plan, Germany sought to swiftly and decisively defeat France by executing a lightning-fast invasion through neutral Belgium, bypassing the formidable defenses along the Franco-German border. The intention was to incapacitate France before turning attention to the Eastern Front to face the advancing Russian forces.

As the ominous clouds of World War I gathered in 1914, Germany set the Schlieffen Plan into motion. However, the grand scheme encountered unforeseen challenges and resistance. The turning point came at the Battle of the Marne, where French and British forces mounted a formidable defense, halting the seemingly unstoppable German advance.

The Schlieffen Plan, once a blueprint for German dominance, faced a reality check. The failure of the plan marked a pivotal moment in the war’s narrative, leading to a protracted and entrenched conflict on the Western Front. The story of the Schlieffen Plan serves as a vivid illustration of the complexities and uncertainties of military strategies, demonstrating that even the most meticulously crafted plans can unravel in the crucible of war.

The Central Powers

In a pivotal shift during the prelude to World War I, Italy, initially aligned with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, decided to abandon the alliance and pursue its strategic interests independently. This diplomatic maneuver, known as the Treaty of London in 1915, saw Italy joining the Triple Entente, composed of France, Russia, and Britain, in exchange for territorial promises. Italy’s departure created a void in the alliance that was swiftly filled by the Ottoman Empire, which entered into a formal alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in October 1914. This realignment transformed the Central Powers into a coalition comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. The addition of the Ottoman Empire brought a significant geopolitical dimension to the Central Powers, expanding their reach into the Middle East and intensifying the global scope of World War I.

Total Warfare

World War I marked the dawn of total warfare, a concept that encompassed the complete mobilization of a nation’s resources and population to sustain the war effort. Unlike previous conflicts, World War I saw the widespread involvement of entire societies in the war, with civilians as well as soldiers becoming targets and participants in the struggle. Total warfare blurred the lines between the military front and the home front, as governments mobilized their economies, industries, and populations to support the war effort. Factories were converted to produce munitions and war materials, agricultural production was geared towards feeding armies, and civilians were enlisted to work in essential industries and support services. Propaganda campaigns were utilized to rally public support for the war and demonize the enemy, while censorship and surveillance measures were imposed to control dissent and maintain morale. Additionally, total warfare witnessed the widespread use of unrestricted submarine warfare, aerial bombardment of civilian populations, and the targeting of civilian infrastructure. The devastating human cost of total warfare was unprecedented, with millions of soldiers and civilians killed, wounded, or displaced by the conflict. Ultimately, World War I demonstrated the transformative power of total warfare, reshaping societies, economies, and political landscapes in ways that would have far-reaching consequences for the 20th century and beyond.

Women in World War I

World War I brought about significant changes in the roles and opportunities available to women, as their contributions to the war effort expanded beyond traditional domestic spheres. With millions of men mobilized for combat, women stepped into the workforce in unprecedented numbers, filling essential roles in factories, munitions plants, and agricultural fields to support the war effort. They worked as nurses, ambulance drivers, and clerical staff, providing vital support on the front lines and behind the scenes. The war also provided a platform for women’s suffrage movements, as their wartime contributions challenged traditional gender roles and norms, leading to increased calls for political equality and voting rights. While women’s involvement in the war effort was instrumental in sustaining the war economies of many countries, their contributions were often overlooked or undervalued in the post-war period. Nonetheless, World War I marked a significant milestone in the ongoing struggle for gender equality, paving the way for future advancements in women’s rights and opportunities.

Propaganda

World War I was characterized by extensive propaganda efforts employed by all sides involved in the conflict. Governments utilized propaganda as a powerful tool to shape public opinion, mobilize support for the war effort, and demonize the enemy. Propaganda took various forms, including posters, pamphlets, newspapers, films, and speeches, and targeted both domestic and international audiences. These propaganda campaigns often depicted the enemy as barbaric and cruel, employing dehumanizing imagery and portraying them as a threat to civilization and freedom. Nationalistic fervor was stoked through appeals to patriotism and duty, while messages of sacrifice and heroism were used to rally support for the war. Additionally, propaganda was used to recruit soldiers, raise funds through war bonds, and maintain morale on the home front. Censorship and control of the media were also employed to suppress dissenting voices and maintain the narrative of national unity and victory. Overall, propaganda played a crucial role in shaping public perceptions of the war and influencing attitudes towards the conflict, contributing to the polarization and fervor that characterized World War I.

New Technology

World War I saw the widespread introduction of new and innovative technologies that revolutionized warfare and had a profound impact on the course of the conflict. Among the most notable advancements was the use of mechanized warfare, including tanks, which were first deployed by the British in 1916. These armored vehicles provided unprecedented firepower and protection, allowing for breakthroughs in the static trench warfare that dominated the Western Front. Additionally, aircraft played a significant role, with both reconnaissance and combat aircraft being employed for the first time on a large scale. The development of fighter planes and bombers transformed aerial warfare, leading to dogfights in the skies and strategic bombing of enemy targets. Another key innovation was the use of poison gas, such as chlorine and mustard gas, which inflicted horrific casualties and introduced a new dimension of terror to the battlefield. Furthermore, advancements in artillery, including long-range guns and heavy artillery bombardments, wreaked havoc on enemy positions and reshaped the tactics of trench warfare. Overall, the new technology of World War I heralded a new era of modern warfare, with far-reaching consequences for military strategy, tactics, and the human experience of war.

Trench Warfare

Trench warfare, a defining feature of World War I, epitomized the grueling and static nature of the conflict on the Western Front. Stretching from the Swiss border to the North Sea, opposing forces dug elaborate networks of trenches that snaked through the landscape, creating a fortified front line that stretched for hundreds of miles. These trenches provided soldiers with protection from enemy fire but subjected them to harsh and often miserable conditions. Life in the trenches was marked by incessant shelling, constant threat of snipers, and the omnipresent specter of disease and vermin. Soldiers endured the harsh realities of trench warfare, including trench foot, lice infestations, and the psychological toll of living in close quarters amid death and destruction. Battles were fought over mere yards of ground, often resulting in staggering casualties for minimal territorial gains. Trench warfare became a symbol of the futility and brutality of World War I, illustrating the entrenched stalemate that characterized the conflict on the Western Front for much of its duration.

Colonial Involvement in World War I

Colonialism played a significant role in shaping the course and impact of World War I. The global nature of the conflict was intimately tied to the imperial ambitions and colonial possessions of the major European powers involved. Prior to the war, European nations had established vast colonial empires across Africa, Asia, and the Americas, exploiting the resources and manpower of these colonies to fuel their economies and support their military endeavors. During World War I, colonial troops from these territories were mobilized to fight alongside European forces, contributing to the massive manpower pools available to the belligerent powers. Additionally, colonial territories served as strategic bases for naval operations, supply routes, and troop deployments, extending the reach of European powers across the globe. The war also intensified competition among European powers for control of colonial territories, leading to conflicts and colonial campaigns in regions such as Africa and the Middle East. Furthermore, the aftermath of World War I saw the redrawing of colonial boundaries and the imposition of new mandates and spheres of influence, reflecting the shifting balance of power among colonial powers. Overall, colonialism profoundly influenced World War I by shaping the geopolitical landscape, expanding the scope of the conflict, and laying the groundwork for future colonial struggles and decolonization movements in the 20th century.

The Fronts of World War I

World War I was characterized by multiple fronts, each with its own unique challenges and strategies. The Western Front, stretching from the English Channel to the Swiss border, was characterized by trench warfare, where soldiers dug elaborate networks of trenches to defend against enemy attacks. Stalemate and attrition defined the fighting here, with massive casualties incurred in battles over relatively small parcels of land. The Eastern Front, spanning from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, saw more fluid and mobile warfare, with larger territorial gains and losses as German and Austro-Hungarian forces clashed with Russian armies. The Southern Front encompassed conflicts in the Balkans, where the multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire faced resistance from Serbia, Montenegro, and other Slavic states. Meanwhile, the war extended beyond Europe to other theaters, including the Middle East, Africa, and the Asia-Pacific region, where colonial powers fought for control of territories and resources. These various fronts contributed to the global scale of World War I, shaping the course of the conflict and its eventual outcome.

Japan

Japan’s involvement in World War I, which commenced in 1914, was driven by a combination of strategic, economic, and geopolitical considerations. Initially, Japan adhered to a policy of neutrality, benefiting from economic ties with both the Allied and Central Powers. However, as the war progressed, Japan seized the opportunity to expand its influence in the Pacific and Asia, asserting itself as a regional power.

In 1914, Japan, adhering to the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance formed in 1902, declared war on Germany. The primary objective was to secure German-controlled territories in East Asia, namely the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands, as well as Tsingtao in China. Japan aimed to strengthen its imperial holdings, enhance its naval capabilities, and establish itself as a dominant force in the Asia-Pacific region.

Japan’s military engagement in World War I provided a platform for the nation to demonstrate its growing prowess on the global stage. Moreover, the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 recognized Japan’s territorial gains, solidifying its status as a major power. Japan’s participation in World War I thus marked a crucial chapter in its emergence as a key player in international affairs, setting the stage for its continued geopolitical influence in the years to come.

Russia

Russia played a significant role in World War I, initially joining the conflict on the side of the Allies in 1914. Its vast size and considerable manpower made it a crucial ally, but internal unrest and military setbacks weakened its contribution over time. The Russian army suffered major defeats on the Eastern Front, exacerbating domestic discontent and leading to widespread unrest and revolution. In March 1917, the February Revolution forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate, resulting in the establishment of a provisional government. However, the provisional government’s inability to address the country’s pressing social and economic issues further fueled discontent, leading to the October Revolution later that year, which brought the Bolsheviks to power under Vladimir Lenin. With the Bolsheviks’ rise to power, Russia’s involvement in World War I came to an end. In March 1918, the newly formed Bolshevik government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, effectively ending Russia’s participation in the conflict and ceding significant territories to Germany and its allies. Russia’s withdrawal from World War I reshaped the dynamics of the conflict and had far-reaching consequences for the course of the war and the subsequent peace negotiations.

The United States

In the early 20th century, the United States found itself grappling with the complexities of international affairs as World War I raged in Europe. Initially adhering to a policy of isolationism, the U.S. sought to steer clear of the conflict, focusing on domestic concerns. However, a series of events gradually drew the nation into the fray.

One pivotal moment was the sinking of the British ocean liner RMS Lusitania by a German submarine in 1915. The tragedy claimed the lives of over a thousand, including 128 Americans. The sinking heightened tensions and spurred public outrage, challenging the nation’s commitment to isolationism. Despite this, the U.S. hesitated to fully engage in the war.

In 1917, a turning point emerged with the revelation of the infamous Zimmerman telegram. Sent by Germany to Mexico, the telegram proposed a military alliance against the United States if it entered the war against Germany. This startling revelation further swayed public opinion and intensified anti-German sentiment.

In April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson, having secured a mandate from Congress, declared war on Germany. The decision marked a departure from the nation’s isolationist stance and thrust the United States into the global conflict. The subsequent involvement of American troops on the Western Front played a significant role in tilting the balance in favor of the Allies and shaping the outcome of World War I.

The End of the War

As World War I entered its final phase, the toll on both human lives and geopolitical landscapes was profound. The war, which had raged from 1914 to 1918, witnessed unprecedented levels of destruction and suffering. Casualties on all sides were staggering, with millions of soldiers and civilians paying the ultimate price for the conflict’s relentless brutality.

The total number of casualties in World War I surpassed 40 million, including approximately 9.7 million military personnel and over 10 million civilians killed as a result of the fighting, disease, and other war-related causes. The physical and psychological scars left by the war ran deep, reshaping the political and social fabric of nations.

Amidst this backdrop, the Central Powers found themselves facing insurmountable challenges. A combination of military defeats, economic exhaustion, and internal strife eroded their capacity to sustain the war effort. Germany, in particular, was burdened by a blockade that stifled its access to essential resources. The entrance of fresh American troops onto the Western Front provided a crucial boost to the Allies, tipping the balance in their favor.

The culmination of these factors led to the Armistice of Compiegne on November 11, 1918, effectively ending the hostilities. The Central Powers, recognizing the untenable situation, succumbed to the inevitable and accepted the terms of the armistice. The war’s conclusion marked a watershed moment in history, reshaping the political landscape through treaties like the Treaty of Versailles and setting the stage for a complex post-war era.

The Treaty of Versailles

Crafted in 1919 within the opulent surroundings of the Palace of Versailles, the Treaty of Versailles sought to address the aftermath of World War I, reshape national boundaries, and establish a framework for lasting peace. The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire stood as one of its profound outcomes, reflecting the principle of self-determination as new nations emerged from the remnants of the once-vast political entity.

A hallmark feature of the treaty was the establishment of the League of Nations, an international organization aimed at fostering cooperation among nations to prevent future conflicts. While facing challenges and proving unable to prevent World War II, the League marked an early attempt at global governance.

The treaty included the infamous “war guilt clause” (Article 231), which unequivocally placed blame for the war on Germany and its allies. Punitive measures, including territorial losses, demilitarization, and reparations, were imposed on Germany, reflecting the Allies’ desire to hold a specific party accountable for the war’s immense human and economic costs.

In assigning blame, England and France, as key Allied powers, navigated complex postwar realities. The need to satisfy domestic sentiments and find a tangible target for blame influenced the emphasis on Germany’s culpability. Negotiations leading to the treaty were shaped by a delicate balance between geopolitical interests, public opinion, and the aspirations of nations emerging from the disintegration of empires.

While hailed as a noble effort to secure peace, the Treaty of Versailles also laid the groundwork for future tensions. Its punitive measures and territorial adjustments sowed the seeds of resentment, contributing to the geopolitical complexities that defined the interwar period. As historians analyze its impact, the treaty remains a crucial chapter in the intricate tapestry of 20th-century history.

The End of the Ottoman Empire

The aftermath of World War I brought significant changes to the Ottoman Empire. Defeated as part of the Central Powers, the empire faced restructuring through the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. This treaty aimed to redefine its borders, resulting in substantial territorial losses and the recognition of the independence of various nations. However, internal resistance to these terms prompted a renegotiation.

In 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne replaced the Treaty of Sèvres. This new agreement, negotiated between the Allies and the Republic of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, addressed outstanding issues. It recognized the sovereignty of the newly formed Republic of Turkey, establishing modern-day Turkey and delineating its borders.

The end of the Ottoman Empire marked a significant turning point, concluding centuries of imperial rule and paving the way for the establishment of an independent Turkish state. The emergence of the Republic of Turkey, led by Atatürk, signaled a transformative era characterized by political, social, and cultural reforms that defined Turkey’s post-Ottoman identity.

The End of the Austria-Hungary Empire

The end of the Austria-Hungary Empire after World War I marked a significant turning point in European history. The empire, which had been a dominant force in Central and Eastern Europe for centuries, disintegrated in the wake of the war’s conclusion. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon, both signed in 1919, mandated the dissolution of Austria-Hungary and the creation of new nation-states in its place. The empire’s diverse ethnic populations, long subjected to centralization and imperial rule, clamored for independence and self-determination. As a result, Austria-Hungary was divided into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, among others. The breakup of the empire led to the emergence of new geopolitical realities and reshaped the political landscape of Europe, setting the stage for future conflicts and tensions in the region.

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, presented to Congress in January 1918, outlined his vision for a just and lasting peace after World War I. As the United States entered the war, Wilson sought to articulate a set of principles to guide the postwar world order. The Fourteen Points addressed both the immediate concerns of the conflict and the long-term aspirations for global stability.

Key elements of the Fourteen Points included the principles of open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, free trade, and the reduction of armaments. Wilson advocated for the adjustment of colonial claims based on the principle of self-determination, allowing nations to determine their own political destinies. One of the pivotal points called for the creation of an international organization, which later materialized as the League of Nations, aimed at preventing future conflicts through collective security and diplomatic resolutions.

The Fourteen Points reflected Wilson’s commitment to a new world order characterized by transparency, fairness, and cooperation among nations. While some of the specific points faced challenges during the postwar negotiations, the principles laid the groundwork for discussions at the Treaty of Versailles and influenced subsequent diplomatic initiatives. Wilson’s vision, encapsulated in the Fourteen Points, remains a significant chapter in the history of international relations, shaping debates on peace, self-determination, and global governance.

The League of Nations

The formation of the League of Nations in the aftermath of World War I represented a historic attempt to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. Envisioned in President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, the League was a central component of the Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919.

The League of Nations was established with the primary goal of promoting collective security and diplomacy among nations. Member states pledged to resolve disputes through peaceful means and avoid resorting to war. The League’s covenant outlined a structure that included an Assembly, where all member states were represented, and a Council comprising major powers, with provisions for additional non-permanent members.

The League’s early years saw various successes, including the resolution of minor disputes and the provision of humanitarian aid. However, its effectiveness faced significant challenges. The absence of key nations, including the United States, weakened its global influence. Moreover, the League’s inability to prevent the outbreak of World War II underscored its limitations.

Despite its shortcomings, the League of Nations laid the groundwork for the establishment of the United Nations after World War II. The League’s legacy remains as a pioneering effort in international diplomacy, with its successes and failures shaping subsequent approaches to global governance and collective security.

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