Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World for AP World History

Jan 29

16 min read

The rise of industrialization and new transportation technology, such as trains and steamships, led to massive migration of people both within their own countries and across the globe. People migrated for a variety of reasons. Many were searching for new economic opportunities or escaping oppression. Others were coerced into providing labor for colonial interests, such as sugar and coffee plantations. Read the Google Slides to learn about the causes of migration in an interconnected world.

Illustrative Examples

Japanese Agricultural Workers in the Pacific

Lebanese Merchants in the Americas

Italian Industrial Workers in Argentina

Irish Immigration to the United States

British Engineers in South Asia and Africa

map of migration — 2078204197/Shutterstock

New Modes of Transportation

Between 1750 and 1900, the advent of new modes of transportation, such as trains and steamships, revolutionized the movement of people, leading to a significant increase in migration both within countries and across international borders. Within their own countries, the expansion of railway networks facilitated the mass migration of rural populations to urban centers in search of economic opportunities fueled by industrialization. Industrial cities offered employment in factories, mills, and other burgeoning industries, drawing in migrants seeking better livelihoods. The accessibility and affordability of rail travel made it easier for individuals and families to relocate to urban areas, contributing to the rapid growth of cities and the emergence of urbanization as a defining trend of the era.

Simultaneously, new transportation technologies also facilitated international migration on an unprecedented scale. Steamships revolutionized long-distance travel, significantly reducing the time and cost of ocean voyages. This made transoceanic migration more accessible to a broader segment of the population, particularly from Europe to the Americas, Australia, and other distant regions. Economic opportunities, political instability, religious persecution, and other factors drove millions of people to leave their homelands in search of a better life abroad. Whether seeking refuge from hardship or pursuing dreams of prosperity in new lands, migrants embarked on arduous journeys across oceans, often enduring harsh conditions and facing unknown challenges.

Overall, the proliferation of trains and steamships during the period between 1750 and 1900 transformed the global landscape of human mobility, facilitating unprecedented levels of migration within countries to urban centers and across international borders. This mass movement of people reshaped societies, cultures, and economies, leaving a lasting imprint on the world as we know it today.

Urbanization

Between 1750 and 1900, urbanization surged worldwide, driven by a confluence of factors, most notably industrialization and the allure of economic opportunities in burgeoning urban centers. Industrialization revolutionized production methods, leading to the rapid growth of factories and industries concentrated in urban areas. The promise of employment and higher wages drew masses of people from rural areas to cities, seeking better livelihoods and a chance at upward mobility. Additionally, advancements in agricultural technology and practices reduced the need for labor in rural areas, pushing surplus rural populations towards urban centers in search of alternative sources of income. Urbanization was also fueled by demographic shifts, including population growth and migration patterns, as well as social and cultural changes that transformed traditional rural societies. The allure of amenities such as improved infrastructure, access to education, healthcare, and entertainment further incentivized migration to cities. However, the rapid pace of urbanization also brought about challenges such as overcrowding, inadequate housing, and social tensions, reflecting the complex interplay of economic, social, and technological forces that shaped the urban landscape during this period.

Environmental Factors

Between 1750 and 1900, environmental factors played a significant role in driving migration on a global scale. Natural disasters, such as famines, floods, and droughts, devastated communities and forced people to seek refuge elsewhere. Famine, in particular, caused by crop failures or adverse weather conditions, compelled many to abandon their homes in search of food and survival. Similarly, environmental degradation, exacerbated by deforestation, soil erosion, and depletion of natural resources, rendered lands uninhabitable and livelihoods unsustainable, prompting migration to more hospitable regions. Climate variability and extreme weather events, intensified by factors such as the Little Ice Age and volcanic eruptions, disrupted agricultural cycles and exacerbated environmental vulnerabilities, leading to population displacement and migration. Moreover, the spread of diseases, such as the cholera pandemic and outbreaks of infectious illnesses, spurred migration as people fled disease-stricken areas in search of safety and health. These environmental factors underscored the precarious relationship between humans and their natural surroundings during this period, highlighting the profound impact of environmental changes on patterns of human migration and settlement.

Diaspora

Diaspora refers to the dispersion or scattering of a group of people from their original homeland to other regions or countries, often due to voluntary or involuntary migration. This dispersion typically results in the establishment of distinct communities with shared cultural, ethnic, or national identities in their new locations. Diasporas can form for various reasons, including economic opportunities, political persecution, conflict, or seeking refuge from natural disasters. Examples of diasporas include the Jewish diaspora, which originated from the ancient Jewish populations of the Middle East and dispersed across Europe, North America, and other regions following periods of exile, persecution, and migration. Another example is the African diaspora, which encompasses the descendants of enslaved Africans who were forcibly transported to the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade, resulting in the establishment of vibrant African-descended communities throughout the Western Hemisphere. Additionally, the Indian diaspora comprises individuals and communities of Indian origin who have migrated to various parts of the world for reasons such as employment, education, and trade, forming significant diasporic communities in countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. These examples illustrate the diverse and complex nature of diasporas, which play a significant role in shaping global cultures, economies, and societies.

Labor Systems

Between 1750 and 1900, labor systems played a pivotal role in driving migration patterns across the globe. The use of enslaved people on plantations, particularly in the Americas, to harvest raw materials like cotton, sugar, and tobacco, was a central feature of the global economy during this period. The transatlantic slave trade forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas, fueling the expansion of European colonial empires and the growth of lucrative industries reliant on coerced labor. However, the abolition of slavery in the 19th century, driven by moral, political, and economic factors, led to a seismic shift in labor dynamics. With the end of slavery, there arose a pressing need for a new labor force to sustain agricultural, industrial, and commercial enterprises. This demand for labor spurred the recruitment and migration of coerced and semi-coerced workers from various regions around the world. Indentured servants, primarily from Asia and Europe, were contracted to work in plantations, mines, and other labor-intensive industries, often under exploitative conditions. Similarly, contract labor systems emerged in response to the demand for cheap labor, with workers contracted for fixed periods of time to perform specific tasks. These labor systems facilitated the movement of people across continents, shaping patterns of migration and contributing to the diversification of labor forces in regions such as the Americas, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. Despite variations in the nature of labor systems and the experiences of migrant workers, coercion, exploitation, and social inequality were pervasive features of migration during this period, highlighting the complex intersections of labor, migration, and power in the global economy.

Slavery

Between 1750 and 1900, slavery remained a pervasive and deeply entrenched institution, shaping economies, societies, and politics around the world. Although the transatlantic slave trade officially ended in the 19th century, the practice of chattel slavery persisted in many regions, particularly in the Americas. Enslaved Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic Ocean to work on plantations producing commodities such as sugar, cotton, and tobacco. The exploitation and brutal treatment of enslaved people were central to the profitability of these industries, with enslaved laborers subjected to extreme violence, dehumanization, and exploitation. The abolitionist movements of the 18th and 19th centuries challenged the morality and legality of slavery, leading to the gradual abolition of the slave trade and, eventually, the emancipation of enslaved people in various countries. However, the legacy of slavery continued to cast a long shadow over societies, with former slaves facing ongoing discrimination, inequality, and marginalization long after emancipation. Moreover, forms of coerced labor such as indentured servitude, convict labor, and sharecropping persisted, perpetuating systems of exploitation and injustice. The abolition of slavery marked a significant milestone in the fight for human rights and equality, but its legacies continue to shape the contemporary world, underscoring the enduring struggle for racial justice and reconciliation.

Chattel Slavery

Chattel slavery refers to a system of slavery in which enslaved individuals are treated as property, bought and sold as commodities, and subjected to the absolute control of their owners. In chattel slavery, enslaved people are considered legal property, with no inherent rights or autonomy. They can be bought, sold, inherited, or traded at the discretion of their owners, who exercise complete authority over their lives, labor, and bodies. Chattel slavery was particularly prevalent in the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported and enslaved on plantations to cultivate crops such as sugar, cotton, and tobacco. Enslaved individuals in chattel slavery were denied basic human rights, subjected to brutal treatment, and often lived in deplorable conditions. The abolition of chattel slavery marked a pivotal moment in the fight for human rights and equality, but its legacies continue to impact societies around the world.

Indentured Servants

Between 1750 and 1900, indentured servitude was a widespread labor system employed by European colonial powers and private individuals to meet the growing demand for cheap labor in various parts of the world. Indentured servants were typically individuals who voluntarily entered into contracts, often under duress or coercion, agreeing to work for a specified period of time in exchange for passage to a colony, land, or other benefits. Indentured servitude differed from slavery in that it was temporary and contractual, but it nonetheless subjected individuals to harsh conditions, exploitation, and limited rights. Many indentured servants were recruited from regions such as Europe, South Asia, and China, where poverty, political instability, and economic hardship made them vulnerable to recruitment by labor recruiters. Indentured servants were employed in various industries, including agriculture, mining, and domestic service, and they played a significant role in the economic development of colonies such as the Americas, Africa, and the Caribbean. However, indentured servitude was often marked by abuses, including deceptive recruitment practices, harsh working conditions, and limited opportunities for advancement or freedom. Despite its prevalence during this period, indentured servitude gradually declined in the late 19th and early 20th centuries due to changing labor dynamics, abolitionist movements, and the gradual shift towards other forms of labor exploitation, such as contract labor and wage labor.

Contract Labor

Between 1750 and 1900, contract labor emerged as a prominent form of labor exploitation in various regions of the world, particularly in colonies and newly industrializing nations. Contract labor involved individuals signing agreements, often under duress or coercion, to work for a fixed period of time in exchange for wages or other benefits. These contracts were typically arranged by labor recruiters or employers and were common in industries such as mining, plantation agriculture, and construction. Contract laborers were often recruited from impoverished regions, including Europe, South Asia, China, and Africa, where economic hardship and lack of opportunities made them susceptible to exploitation. Once recruited, contract laborers were often subjected to harsh working conditions, limited rights, and minimal protections. Many endured long hours, low wages, and unsafe working environments, with little recourse for grievances. Contract labor played a significant role in the economic development of colonies and industrializing nations, providing cheap and flexible labor for industries reliant on mass production and extraction of natural resources. However, it also perpetuated cycles of poverty, exploitation, and inequality, with contract laborers often trapped in cycles of debt and dependency. Despite efforts to regulate and abolish exploitative labor practices, contract labor remained prevalent throughout the 19th century, contributing to the global movement for labor rights and social justice.

Penal Colonies

Penal colonies represented a unique form of labor system, primarily exemplified by the British establishment of penal colonies in places like Australia during the 18th and 19th centuries. These colonies served as sites of punishment for convicts who were transported from Britain and Ireland as a means of alleviating overcrowded prisons and providing labor for colonial development. Convicts were subjected to forced labor, often under harsh and oppressive conditions, as they were tasked with building infrastructure, clearing land, and undertaking other labor-intensive projects to support the colony’s growth. Penal colonies played a crucial role in the colonization of Australia, contributing to the development of cities, roads, and industries while simultaneously facilitating the displacement and dispossession of indigenous populations. Despite the brutal treatment and exploitation experienced by convicts, some eventually gained their freedom and went on to establish new lives in the colonies. However, the legacy of penal colonies is fraught with stories of suffering, injustice, and the enduring impact of colonialism on both the penalized and indigenous peoples.

Looking for a Better Life

Between 1750 and 1900, waves of migration were driven by individuals seeking refuge from persecution, poverty, and natural disasters in their own countries, leading to significant demographic shifts across the globe. In regions such as India and China, socio-political upheavals, religious conflicts, and economic hardships pushed many to seek opportunities elsewhere. The imposition of colonial rule and economic policies by European powers exacerbated poverty and social unrest, prompting mass migrations to distant lands in search of better prospects. Similarly, the Irish diaspora was spurred by the Great Potato Famine in the mid-19th century, which devastated Ireland’s agricultural economy and led to widespread hunger and destitution. Faced with dire circumstances and lack of support, millions of Irish men and women embarked on perilous journeys across the Atlantic to the United States, Canada, and other countries in search of a better life. The assimilation of Ireland into the United Kingdom in 1801 further fueled grievances and contributed to the desire for emigration. These migrations were characterized by hardship, resilience, and the pursuit of hope in the face of adversity. They reshaped societies, cultures, and economies, leaving a lasting imprint on the countries of origin and destination. Moreover, they underscored the universal human drive for survival and the enduring quest for a better future, transcending geographical boundaries and historical contexts.

Japanese Agricultural Workers in the Pacific

Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japanese agricultural workers migrated to the Pacific region, including destinations such as Hawaii and parts of the United States, driven by a combination of economic hardship and opportunities abroad. In Japan, rapid industrialization and population growth strained agricultural resources, leading to land scarcity and diminishing opportunities for rural livelihoods. Additionally, socio-economic factors such as high taxes, indebtedness, and crop failures exacerbated poverty and compelled many Japanese peasants to seek alternatives elsewhere. The Pacific region, with its demand for labor in industries such as sugarcane cultivation, offered promising prospects for employment and economic advancement. Japanese agricultural workers, often recruited through labor contracts or family networks, embarked on arduous journeys across the Pacific Ocean in search of a better life. Despite facing challenges such as discrimination and harsh working conditions, they persevered, contributing to the development of agricultural economies in their new homelands while maintaining ties to their Japanese heritage. The migration of Japanese agricultural workers to the Pacific underscored the complex intersections of economic, social, and political factors driving global migration during this period.

Lebanese Merchants in the Americas

Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Lebanese merchants established a significant presence in the Americas, drawn by a combination of economic opportunities, political instability, and religious persecution in their homeland. Lebanon, then part of the Ottoman Empire, faced socio-economic challenges such as overpopulation, land scarcity, and declining agricultural productivity. Additionally, sectarian tensions and religious conflicts exacerbated by Ottoman rule led to discrimination and persecution against certain religious and ethnic groups, including the Maronite Christians who constituted a significant portion of the Lebanese population. Faced with limited prospects for prosperity and safety at home, many Lebanese individuals and families sought refuge and opportunity abroad. The Americas, with their burgeoning economies and promise of religious freedom and tolerance, became attractive destinations for Lebanese migrants. Lebanese merchants, known for their entrepreneurial spirit and business acumen, ventured to cities such as New York, Buenos Aires, and São Paulo, where they established thriving businesses in sectors such as trade, textiles, and food industries. Despite facing challenges such as language barriers and cultural adjustment, Lebanese merchants succeeded in building prosperous communities and contributing to the economic development of their adopted countries. The migration of Lebanese merchants to the Americas underscored the global nature of migration during this period, shaped by intersecting factors of economic necessity, political upheaval, and aspirations for a better life.

Italian Industrial Workers in Argentina

Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Italian industrial workers played a significant role in Argentina’s burgeoning economy, drawn by the promise of employment and economic opportunity in the South American nation. Italy, grappling with overpopulation, poverty, and political instability, experienced mass emigration during this period, with millions of Italians seeking better prospects abroad. Argentina, with its expanding industrial sector fueled by immigration and investment, emerged as a preferred destination for Italian migrants. Italian industrial workers, skilled in various trades such as construction, manufacturing, and textiles, contributed to the rapid industrialization of Argentina, particularly in cities like Buenos Aires and Rosario. They formed vibrant communities, established mutual aid societies, and preserved their cultural heritage while assimilating into Argentine society. Despite facing challenges such as discrimination and labor exploitation, Italian industrial workers played a crucial role in building Argentina’s infrastructure, fueling economic growth, and shaping the country’s urban landscape. Their migration to Argentina exemplified the global phenomenon of labor mobility during this period, driven by economic imperatives and aspirations for a better life.

Irish Families in the United States

Irish immigration to the United States during the 19th century was primarily motivated by a combination of economic hardship, political oppression, and social upheaval in their homeland. The Great Famine, which ravaged Ireland in the mid-19th century due to potato crop failures, caused widespread starvation, poverty, and death, prompting millions of Irish men, women, and children to seek refuge abroad. The famine, exacerbated by British colonial policies and land tenure systems, left many Irish peasants landless and destitute, driving them to seek opportunities in distant lands like the United States. Additionally, political oppression under British rule, coupled with religious discrimination against Catholics, further incentivized Irish emigration. The promise of economic opportunity and religious freedom in the United States attracted Irish immigrants, who sought to escape the dire conditions and build a better future for themselves and their families. Upon arrival in the United States, many Irish immigrants faced challenges such as discrimination, overcrowded tenements, and low-wage labor. However, they persevered, establishing vibrant Irish-American communities and contributing to the economic, cultural, and political fabric of their adopted country. Irish immigration to the United States during this period exemplifies the global phenomenon of migration driven by economic necessity, political unrest, and aspirations for a better life.

Leaving India

Between 1750 and 1900, significant numbers of people left India, driven by various factors including economic opportunities, political instability, and social pressures. Many Indians migrated to other parts of the British Empire, particularly to British colonies in Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. In Southeast Asia, Indian migrants were recruited as laborers for British colonial projects such as the construction of railways and plantations in countries like Malaysia, Singapore, and Burma (present-day Myanmar). Economic factors, including the decline of traditional agrarian livelihoods and the lure of employment in colonial industries, motivated many Indians to seek opportunities abroad. Additionally, political unrest, religious persecution, and caste discrimination pushed certain communities, such as Sikhs and Hindus, to leave India in search of religious freedom and social mobility. The Indian indentured labor system, which replaced slavery after its abolition, also facilitated migration, with Indians being contracted to work on plantations in British colonies such as Fiji, Mauritius, and the Caribbean islands. Overall, the migration of Indians from India during this period was shaped by a complex interplay of economic, social, and political factors, contributing to the global Indian diaspora and leaving a lasting impact on the societies and economies of destination countries.

Leaving China

Between 1750 and 1900, a significant number of people left China, driven by various factors such as economic opportunities, political instability, and social unrest. Many Chinese migrants sought opportunities in Southeast Asia, particularly in British colonies such as Malaysia, Singapore, and Burma (present-day Myanmar), where they found employment in industries such as tin mining, rubber plantations, and construction projects. Economic factors, including population pressure, land shortages, and poverty, pushed many Chinese peasants and laborers to seek better prospects abroad. Additionally, political upheavals, such as the Taiping Rebellion and the Opium Wars, as well as natural disasters such as floods and famines, further destabilized China and prompted migration. Discrimination, social inequality, and the rigid social hierarchy of traditional Chinese society also motivated certain groups, such as Hakka and Cantonese communities, to seek opportunities overseas. Chinese migrants also ventured to other parts of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and the United States, where they contributed to the development of industries such as mining, agriculture, and railroad construction. Overall, the migration of Chinese people from China during this period was shaped by a complex interplay of economic, political, and social factors, contributing to the global Chinese diaspora and leaving a lasting impact on the societies and economies of destination countries.

Settler Colonies

Between 1750 and 1900, settler colonies emerged as a significant form of migration, driven by the expansionist ambitions of colonial powers and the pursuit of economic opportunities in distant lands. British engineers played a pivotal role in the colonization of regions such as South Africa, where the discovery of mineral resources, particularly gold and diamonds, spurred a wave of European migration. British engineers and entrepreneurs, attracted by the promise of wealth and adventure, flocked to South Africa to participate in mining ventures and infrastructure projects, reshaping the landscape and economy of the region. Settler colonies represented a complex interplay of power, migration, and colonization, reshaping landscapes, societies, and identities in profound ways. These migrations underscored the interconnectedness of global histories and the enduring legacies of colonialism and migration in shaping the modern world.

British Engineers

Hokkaido

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan embarked on the colonization of Hokkaido, the northernmost island of the Japanese archipelago. This colonization effort, undertaken during the Meiji era (1868–1912), aimed to transform Hokkaido into a settler colony to bolster Japan’s agricultural production and serve strategic purposes. Under the auspices of the Hokkaido Colonization Office, Japanese settlers were encouraged to migrate to Hokkaido, where they received land grants and support to establish farms and settlements. This colonization initiative resulted in the displacement and marginalization of the indigenous Ainu people, who had inhabited Hokkaido for centuries. Japanese settlers encroached upon Ainu lands, leading to the erosion of Ainu culture and traditional livelihoods. The colonization of Hokkaido reflects Japan’s broader imperial ambitions during the Meiji period and its efforts to expand and consolidate control over its territories. While Hokkaido stands as an example of Japan’s settler colonialism, it also underscores the profound impact of colonization on indigenous communities and the complex legacies of imperialism in Japan’s history.

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