Causation in the Imperial Age for AP World History

Jan 31

10 min read

As we reflect on what we learned about industrialization, imperialism, and migration in Unit 6, we can see a chain of causation. Without the Industrial Revolution, European countries would not have been able to create and exploit colonies deep within the African, Asia, and American continents. Imperialism and industrial technology further created the need for people to migrate from their homes for work or better opportunities. Read the Google Slides to learn about causation in the imperial age.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 18th century, was spurred by a convergence of factors that reshaped the economic, social, and technological landscape of the world. One key catalyst was the agricultural revolution, which increased food production and freed up labor for industrial work. Additionally, advancements in technology, such as the invention of the steam engine and improvements in mechanization, revolutionized manufacturing processes and transportation, leading to increased productivity and efficiency. The growth of capitalism and the rise of a market economy provided the necessary conditions for entrepreneurship and investment in new industries. Furthermore, access to abundant natural resources, such as coal and iron ore, fueled industrial growth. The Industrial Revolution profoundly changed the world by transforming economies from agrarian-based to industrial-based, spurring urbanization, fostering technological innovation, and reshaping social structures. It led to the development of factories, mass production, and the expansion of global trade networks, laying the foundation for modern industrial societies. However, it also brought about significant social and environmental challenges, including urban overcrowding, pollution, and labor exploitation. Overall, the Industrial Revolution marked a turning point in human history, setting the stage for the modern era and shaping the world as we know it today.

Imperialism as a Result of the Industrial Revolution

Imperialism was a direct consequence of the Industrial Revolution, driven by the industrial powers’ insatiable demand for raw materials and markets to sell their finished goods. The newfound industrial capabilities of nations like Britain, France, and Germany necessitated vast quantities of resources such as coal, iron, cotton, and rubber to fuel their factories and sustain their economies. Consequently, these industrialized nations sought to expand their territories and influence across the globe, establishing colonies and dominions in Africa, Asia, and the Americas to secure access to key resources and markets. Through a combination of economic dominance, military might, and diplomatic coercion, imperial powers exploited the natural wealth of their colonies while simultaneously flooding their markets with manufactured goods. This system of economic exploitation and political control allowed industrialized nations to amass wealth and power at the expense of colonized peoples, perpetuating inequalities and disparities on a global scale. Thus, imperialism became intricately linked with the Industrial Revolution, shaping the geopolitical landscape of the 19th and 20th centuries and leaving a lasting legacy of exploitation, resistance, and global interconnectedness.

Map of the British Empire

Examples of Imperialism

British colonization of India for access to raw materials like cotton, crucial for the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution.

British involvement in Egypt for access to cotton.

The “Scramble for Africa” by European powers seeking control over African territories rich in resources such as rubber, timber, minerals, and agricultural products, necessary for sustaining industrial production.

French colonization of Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, to exploit resources like rubber, rice, and minerals, essential for industrial development and trade.

German imperialism in Africa, notably in present-day Namibia, Tanzania, and Cameroon, driven by the desire for resources like diamonds, gold, and agricultural land to fuel industrial growth.

Belgian colonization of the Congo for access to rubber and ivory, vital for meeting the demands of industrial production and trade.

American imperialism in Latin America, exemplified by the annexation of territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, driven by strategic and economic interests related to industrial expansion and access to markets.

Russian expansion into Central Asia and Siberia to access natural resources such as oil, timber, and minerals, essential for industrial development and military expansion.

Italian colonization of Libya and parts of East Africa to acquire agricultural land and resources like oil and minerals, necessary for supporting industrial growth and trade.

Japanese imperialism in East Asia, including the annexation of Korea and the colonization of Taiwan, driven by the need for resources and strategic dominance in the region to support industrialization and military expansion.

Changes in the Standards of Living in Imperialist Countries

The Industrial Revolution brought a dramatic transformation to the standards of living for individuals living in industrialized countries. As industrialization progressed, there was a notable increase in the availability and affordability of consumer goods. Mass production techniques and advancements in transportation led to the widespread production and distribution of consumer products, ranging from textiles and clothing to household appliances and furniture. The introduction of new technologies, such as the steam engine and mechanized looms, revolutionized manufacturing processes, resulting in higher productivity and lower production costs. Consequently, consumer goods that were once considered luxury items became more accessible to the general population. Additionally, innovations in agriculture and food processing improved the quality and variety of food products available to consumers. As a result of these developments, individuals in industrialized countries experienced an overall improvement in their standards of living, with increased access to a wider range of goods and services at more affordable prices. However, it’s important to note that these improvements were not evenly distributed, and disparities in wealth and access to resources persisted, particularly among lower-income and marginalized populations.

Export Economies

When imperialist nations colonized lands, indigenous communities were integrated into export-oriented economies, producing raw materials such as sugar, coffee, rubber, and minerals for European markets. While this brought economic opportunities, it also often resulted in the displacement of traditional subsistence practices and exploitation by colonial powers and local elites. Indigenous communities faced forced labor, land expropriation, and cultural suppression, leading to social disruption and economic marginalization. Additionally, the introduction of European diseases, along with the disruption of traditional ecological systems, adversely impacted indigenous health and well-being. Despite some indigenous individuals benefiting from wage labor opportunities or participation in cash crop production, overall standards of living for many indigenous communities declined as they faced increased poverty, food insecurity, and loss of autonomy over their lands and resources. The impact of colonialism and export economies on indigenous peoples varied significantly depending on factors such as geographical location, colonial policies, and resistance efforts. Nonetheless, the period between 1750 and 1900 marked a challenging time for many indigenous communities as they navigated the profound social, economic, and cultural changes brought about by European expansion and globalization.

Revolution and Rebellion

Between 1750 and 1900, the confluence of the Industrial Revolution and the spread of imperialism sparked numerous revolutions and rebellions around the world. The Industrial Revolution, characterized by rapid technological advancements and the rise of industrial capitalism, led to profound social and economic transformations. While it brought about unprecedented wealth and innovation in industrialized nations, it also exacerbated inequalities, exploitation, and social unrest. Simultaneously, the expansion of imperialism by European powers into Africa, Asia, and the Americas resulted in the colonization and subjugation of indigenous peoples, often leading to resistance and rebellion against colonial rule. Revolts such as the Sepoy Mutiny in India, the Boxer Rebellion in China, and the Zulu War in South Africa were fueled by grievances over-exploitation, cultural suppression, and loss of sovereignty. Additionally, movements for independence and self-determination emerged in colonized regions, such as the American Revolution, Latin American Wars of Independence, and the Indian Independence Movement, driven by a desire to overthrow colonial rule and establish sovereign nations. These revolutions and rebellions, fueled by the intersecting forces of industrialization and imperialism, reshaped global power dynamics and laid the groundwork for the emergence of modern nation-states and the dismantling of colonial empires.

Examples of Revolutions and Rebellions

American Revolution (1775-1783): The American colonies revolted against British colonial rule, seeking independence and self-governance. While factors such as taxation without representation and political ideology played significant roles, the desire for economic autonomy and control over trade and industry, particularly in regions like New England with burgeoning textile mills and merchant enterprises, was a key catalyst for rebellion against British imperial policies.

French Revolution (1789-1799): Sparked by social, political, and economic grievances, including widespread poverty, inequality, and burdensome taxation, the French Revolution overthrew the monarchy and established a republic. The revolution was influenced by Enlightenment ideas and resentment towards the aristocracy’s privileges, but it was also driven by economic turmoil exacerbated by the costly wars of imperialism pursued by the French monarchy.

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804): Born out of the brutal conditions of slavery and inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution led to the first successful slave revolt in history and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation. The revolution was fueled by the exploitation of enslaved Africans on sugar plantations, which were part of the global trade networks shaped by the demands of the Industrial Revolution for raw materials like sugar and coffee.

Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny): The Indian Rebellion, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was a widespread revolt against British colonial rule in India. While immediate causes included grievances over religious disrespect, underlying factors included economic exploitation by the British East India Company, exacerbating social and economic inequalities heightened by the Industrial Revolution.

Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901): The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in China, fueled by resentment towards foreign imperialism and the economic hardships caused by the unequal treaties imposed by Western powers. The rebellion was a response to the encroachment of foreign powers and the exploitation of China’s resources, including the carving up of Chinese territories into spheres of influence by Western powers.

Zulu War (1879): The Zulu War was a conflict between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom in Southern Africa. While immediate causes included disputes over land and territory, underlying factors were influenced by British imperialism and the economic interests tied to the region’s resources. The British colonial expansion into Southern Africa, driven by desires for mineral wealth and strategic control of trade routes, clashed with the sovereignty of the Zulu Kingdom, leading to armed conflict. The Zulu War exemplifies the tensions arising from European imperialism and its impact on indigenous societies, particularly in regions rich in natural resources sought after by industrializing nations.

Migration and Discrimination

The Industrial Revolution and the expansion of imperialism during the 18th and 19th centuries were pivotal in driving migration and fostering discrimination on a global scale. The economic transformations brought about by industrialization led to significant demographic shifts as people migrated from rural areas to burgeoning industrial centers in search of employment opportunities. This internal migration, coupled with the need for labor in industrializing nations, spurred mass migrations across borders, as individuals sought better prospects in newly colonized territories or industrialized countries. However, these migration patterns were often shaped by discriminatory practices and policies perpetuated by imperial powers. Indigenous populations in colonized regions faced displacement, forced labor, and cultural assimilation, while migrants to industrialized nations encountered xenophobia, racial prejudice, and exploitation in their search for employment. Discrimination based on ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic status became entrenched within societies undergoing rapid industrialization and imperial expansion, perpetuating inequalities and social divisions. Moreover, the economic imperatives of imperialism fueled the commodification of labor and the exploitation of marginalized populations, exacerbating existing disparities and contributing to the perpetuation of discriminatory practices both domestically and internationally. Thus, the intersection of the Industrial Revolution and imperialism not only facilitated migration but also reinforced discriminatory attitudes and systems that continue to shape global migration patterns and social dynamics today.

Examples of Migration

Rural to Urban Migration in Industrialized Nations: The Industrial Revolution led to the rapid growth of cities as centers of manufacturing and commerce. Rural populations migrated to urban areas in search of employment opportunities. This internal migration fueled the expansion of urban centers, leading to the rise of urban working-class communities.

European Migration to Colonized Territories: European imperial powers encouraged migration to their colonies to exploit natural resources, establish agricultural plantations, and reinforce colonial administrations. For example, British settlers migrated to Australia, Canada, and South Africa, while French settlers migrated to Algeria and Indochina. The migrations changed the cultural landscapes in colonized territories, often at the expense of indigenous populations.

Chinese and Indian Indentured Laborers: In response to labor shortages in European colonies, particularly in the Caribbean, Africa, and Southeast Asia, European colonial powers recruited indentured laborers from China and India. These migrants signed contracts to work under often harsh conditions in plantation agriculture, mining, and construction. The indenture system resulted in large-scale migration and the establishment of diaspora communities.

African Diaspora through the Transatlantic Slave Trade: The transatlantic slave trade, fueled by European demand for labor in the Americas, forcibly transported millions of Africans to work on plantations and in mines. This migration led to the establishment of African diaspora communities in the Americas, characterized by cultural syncretism and resilience in the face of systemic oppression and exploitation.

Irish Emigration due to Famine and Economic Hardship: The Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s and economic hardships resulting from British colonial policies led to mass emigration from Ireland to countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia. Irish migrants sought refuge from famine-induced poverty and political oppression, contributing to the Irish diaspora and shaping the demographics of destination countries.

Japanese Migration for Labor Opportunities: Industrialization in Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries created demand for labor in overseas markets. Japanese migrants sought opportunities in countries like the United States, Brazil, and Peru, working in agriculture, mining, and railroad construction. Japanese migration contributed to the formation of Japanese diaspora communities in these countries.

Examples of Discrimination

Racial Discrimination in Colonized Territories

Apartheid in South Africa: A system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination that privileged the white minority while marginalizing and oppressing the black majority through laws and policies that restricted their movement, education, and economic opportunities.

Exploitation of Indigenous Labor

Encomienda System in Latin America: A colonial labor system in which indigenous peoples were forced to work on Spanish-owned plantations and mines, often under harsh and exploitative conditions without adequate compensation or rights.

Discrimination against Immigrant Workers in Industrialized Nations

Chinese Exclusion Act (United States, 1882): This federal law prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers, reflecting anti-Chinese sentiment and discrimination in the United States labor market.

Gender Discrimination in Industrial Workplaces

Lowell Mill Girls (United States, 19th century): Female textile workers in Lowell, Massachusetts, faced discrimination in the form of lower wages, longer hours, and strict rules governing their behavior, despite their crucial role in driving industrialization.

Racial Segregation in Urban Centers

Jim Crow Laws (United States, late 19th and early 20th centuries): State and local laws enforced racial segregation in public facilities, transportation, education, and housing, perpetuating racial inequality and segregation in Southern states.

Imperialist Ideologies of Racial Superiority

White Australia Policy (Australia, late 19th and early 20th centuries): A series of laws and policies that aimed to restrict non-white immigration to Australia, reflecting a belief in the racial superiority of white Europeans and institutionalizing discrimination against non-white populations.

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