Calls for Reform and Responses after 1900 for AP World History

Globalization fundamentally changed the nations and communities around the world. Many of these changes have been positive as people traditionally marginalized due to gender, race, class, or religion, received more rights and better access to opportunity. Read the Google Slides to learn about calls for reform and responses after 1900.

Illustrative Examples

The U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Global Feminism Movements

Negritude Movement

Liberation Theology in Latin America

The Right to Vote and/or to Hold Public Office Granted to Women

The Rising Rate of Female Literacy

The Increasing Number of Women in Higher Education

The U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964

The End of Apartheid

Caste Reservation in India

Greenpeace

Professor Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Movement in Kenya

World Fair Trade Organization

Race, Gender, Class, and Religion

Throughout history, societal beliefs and attitudes regarding race, class, gender, and religion have undergone significant transformations, often spurred by pivotal moments of change. In the realm of race, milestones such as the abolition of slavery, the Civil Rights Movement, and the dismantling of apartheid have challenged entrenched racial hierarchies and promoted notions of equality and justice. Likewise, shifts in attitudes towards class have occurred with movements advocating for workers’ rights, the rise of socialism, and efforts to address income inequality. The evolving understanding of gender has seen milestones like suffrage movements, the feminist wave, and ongoing debates around gender identity and equality. In matters of religion, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and more recently, movements promoting religious tolerance and secularism have reshaped attitudes towards faith and spirituality. Despite progress, challenges persist, and ongoing efforts are necessary to foster inclusivity, equity, and understanding across these intersecting dimensions of identity.

The U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was drafted in response to the atrocities of World War II, a time marked by widespread human rights violations and the recognition of the need for a comprehensive framework to safeguard fundamental freedoms and dignity. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, in Paris, France. The drafting process involved representatives from various cultural, legal, and philosophical backgrounds, striving to create a document that transcended national boundaries and reflected universal values. The Declaration aimed to set a global standard for human rights, serving as a moral compass to guide nations in their commitment to upholding the inherent dignity and worth of every individual. Its emphasis on protecting the rights of children, women, and refugees reflects the recognition of their heightened vulnerability in times of conflict and crisis. By articulating these principles, the Declaration sought to foster a world where all people could live free from fear, oppression, and discrimination, regardless of their circumstances or background.

Global Feminism Movements

Global feminism movements encompass a myriad of specific examples that highlight their diverse and impactful nature. One such example is the #MeToo movement, which gained momentum globally, empowering survivors of sexual harassment and assault to speak out against perpetrators and demand accountability. In India, the “Pink Sari Revolution” led by activist Sampat Pal Devi mobilized women from marginalized communities to combat gender-based violence and advocate for their rights. The Women’s March, initially sparked in the United States but quickly spreading worldwide, saw millions of people taking to the streets to protest gender inequality, racism, and other forms of oppression. In Latin America, the Ni Una Menos movement arose to denounce femicide and demand justice for victims of gender-based violence, galvanizing widespread support across the region. Additionally, the Global Fund for Women has provided vital support and resources to grassroots feminist organizations worldwide, amplifying their efforts to advance gender equality and women’s rights. These examples underscore the breadth and depth of global feminism movements, illustrating their capacity to effect change across borders and cultures in pursuit of a more just and equitable world.

The Negritude Movement

The Negritude movement, originating in the early 20th century among Black intellectuals and artists primarily from French-speaking African and Caribbean colonies, emerged as a powerful assertion of Black identity and cultural pride in the face of colonial oppression and racism. Led by figures such as Aimé Césaire, Léopold Sédar Senghor, and Frantz Fanon, the movement rejected the denigration of African culture by colonial powers and celebrated the richness and diversity of Black heritage. Central to Negritude was the idea of reclaiming agency and dignity for Black people, challenging the Eurocentric narrative of inferiority and emphasizing the beauty and significance of African traditions, languages, and artistic expressions. Through poetry, literature, and political activism, Negritude intellectuals sought to cultivate a sense of solidarity among Black communities worldwide and advocate for decolonization, self-determination, and cultural autonomy. The movement’s influence extended beyond its origins in the French-speaking world, inspiring similar movements across Africa, the Caribbean, and the African diaspora, and contributing to the broader struggle for civil rights and liberation movements globally. While the Negritude movement waned in the post-colonial era, its legacy endures as a testament to the resilience and creativity of Black intellectuals and artists in asserting their identity and challenging systems of oppression.

Liberation Theology in Latin America

Liberation theology in Latin America emerged in the late 20th century as a response to the region’s profound social injustices, characterized by widespread poverty, oppression, and exploitation. Rooted in Catholic social teachings and influenced by Marxist analysis, liberation theology sought to reconcile the Christian faith with the struggle for social and economic justice. It began to take shape in the 1950s and 1960s, gaining momentum in the context of the Second Vatican Council and the changing socio-political landscape of Latin America. One of its earliest proponents was Gustavo Gutiérrez, whose seminal work “A Theology of Liberation” articulated its key principles. Liberation theology emphasized the concept of God’s preferential option for the poor, advocating for solidarity with marginalized communities and challenging the structures of inequality and oppression that perpetuated their suffering. Specific examples of liberation theology in action include Archbishop Óscar Romero’s advocacy for the poor and oppressed in El Salvador, where his sermons and pastoral letters became powerful instruments of social critique, ultimately leading to his assassination by a right-wing death squad in 1980. Another example is the Base Christian Communities (Comunidades Eclesiales de Base, or CEBs) that emerged across the region, bringing together Catholics in marginalized communities to study scripture, reflect on their socio-economic conditions, and take collective action to address injustices. These grassroots organizations became centers of resistance and empowerment, advocating for land reform, workers’ rights, and political participation. Additionally, the Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua drew heavily on liberation theology principles, with many Catholic priests and lay workers actively supporting the movement as a means of realizing liberation theology’s vision of justice and equality.

Women’s Sufferage

The granting of the right to vote and hold public office to women in various countries, including the United States in 1920, Brazil in 1932, Turkey in 1934, Japan in 1945, India in 1947, and Morocco in 1963, marked significant milestones in the advancement of gender equality and democratic principles worldwide. In the United States, the women’s suffrage movement, characterized by decades of activism, protests, and advocacy, culminated in the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, granting women the right to vote. Similarly, in Brazil, women’s suffrage was achieved after years of mobilization by feminist groups and the efforts of pioneering women such as Bertha Lutz. In Turkey, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, women’s enfranchisement was part of broader reforms aimed at modernizing and secularizing the country. In Japan, following World War II, the new Constitution established gender equality and granted women suffrage as part of the democratization process led by the Allied occupation forces. In India, independence from British colonial rule in 1947 brought about the opportunity for democratic reforms, including universal suffrage, although challenges to women’s full political participation persisted. In Morocco, King Hassan II introduced political reforms in the early 1960s, including granting women the right to vote and stand for public office, as part of efforts to modernize the country. Across these diverse contexts, the granting of women’s suffrage was a result of persistent activism, changing societal norms, and political reforms aimed at fostering greater inclusion and democracy.

Increasing Educational Opportunities

Since 1900, there has been a remarkable expansion of educational opportunities worldwide, driven by social, economic, and technological advancements. At the beginning of the 20th century, education was often limited, with access largely restricted to elite segments of society in many parts of the world. However, throughout the century, a series of transformative developments occurred. The spread of compulsory education laws and the establishment of public schooling systems in numerous countries laid the foundation for universal access to education. The mid-20th century witnessed significant progress, with post-war reconstruction efforts prioritizing investments in education as a means of fostering economic development and social stability. The expansion of higher education, particularly in the latter half of the century, led to a surge in the number of universities and colleges globally, providing opportunities for advanced learning and specialized skills. Additionally, movements for civil rights, gender equality, and social justice spurred efforts to ensure equitable access to education for marginalized and disadvantaged populations. Technological innovations, such as the proliferation of mass media, telecommunications, and later the internet, further democratized access to knowledge and learning resources. The 21st century has seen a continuation of these trends, with increased emphasis on lifelong learning, digital literacy, and skills development to meet the demands of a rapidly changing global economy. While challenges such as disparities in access, quality, and funding persist, the overall trajectory has been one of significant progress towards expanding educational opportunities worldwide.

Global Literacy

Over the past century, there has been a remarkable increase in literacy rates worldwide, marking a significant stride towards global education and empowerment. At the dawn of the 20th century, illiteracy was widespread, with large segments of the population lacking basic reading and writing skills. However, concerted efforts by governments, international organizations, and grassroots movements have led to dramatic improvements. Initiatives such as the spread of compulsory education laws, the establishment of public schooling systems, and campaigns promoting adult literacy have played pivotal roles in boosting literacy rates. Technological advancements, including the printing press, radio, television, and the internet, have further facilitated access to educational materials and literacy programs. Additionally, the prioritization of education as a fundamental human right and a key driver of socio-economic development by organizations like UNESCO has galvanized global efforts to eradicate illiteracy. As a result, literacy rates have steadily risen across regions, with notable progress in countries where literacy was once scarce. While challenges such as poverty, gender inequality, and lack of resources continue to hinder progress in some areas, the overall trend toward increasing literacy rates represents a significant triumph in pursuing universal education and human potential.

Female Literacy

Increasing female literacy has been recognized as a fundamental component of social and economic development worldwide. Over the past century, concerted efforts by governments, international organizations, and civil society have led to significant progress in expanding educational opportunities for women and girls. Policies promoting gender equality in education, such as the elimination of school fees, the provision of scholarships, and the implementation of targeted literacy programs, have helped to break down barriers to female education. Additionally, awareness-raising campaigns and community outreach efforts have helped to change cultural attitudes towards girls’ education, challenging traditional norms that prioritize boys’ schooling over girls’. As a result of these initiatives, female literacy rates have risen steadily, enabling women and girls to access better employment opportunities, make more informed health decisions, and participate more actively in civic and political life. Despite this progress, challenges remain, including gender disparities in access to education, child marriage, and entrenched socio-cultural barriers. Continued investment in female literacy and education is essential to realizing the full potential of women and girls and achieving sustainable development goals.

Women in Higher Education

The increase of women in higher education over the past century marks a profound shift in societal attitudes towards gender equality and the recognition of women’s capabilities and potential. At the beginning of the 20th century, access to higher education for women was limited and often met with resistance from traditional norms and cultural expectations. However, throughout the century, strides were made towards greater inclusivity and opportunities for women in academia. Movements for women’s rights and gender equality, alongside legislative reforms and institutional policies, paved the way for more women to pursue higher education. The expansion of coeducational institutions, the establishment of women’s colleges and universities, and affirmative action programs aimed at increasing female enrollment all contributed to a significant rise in the number of women attending college and earning degrees. Additionally, societal shifts towards recognizing the value of women’s education, coupled with changing economic dynamics that increasingly require a skilled and educated workforce, further propelled the trend of women entering higher education. As a result, women now comprise a significant proportion of university students worldwide, with many achieving academic excellence and pursuing careers in diverse fields previously dominated by men. While challenges such as gender discrimination, unequal access to resources, and balancing family responsibilities persist, the increasing presence of women in higher education reflects progress towards greater gender equity and the realization of women’s rights to education and self-determination.

The U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964

The U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 stands as a landmark piece of legislation in the country’s history, representing a pivotal moment in the struggle for racial equality and social justice. Enacted on July 2, 1964, by President Lyndon B. Johnson, this comprehensive law aimed to combat discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. However, it was the subsequent passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that proved particularly transformative in addressing systemic disenfranchisement of African Americans. This legislation sought to overcome barriers such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation tactics that had long prevented Black citizens from exercising their right to vote in many Southern states. By outlawing discriminatory voting practices and empowering federal authorities to oversee election procedures in jurisdictions with a history of voter suppression, the Voting Rights Act played a crucial role in expanding access to the ballot box and fostering greater political participation among African Americans. The Act’s impact reverberated beyond the realm of electoral politics, inspiring further advancements in civil rights legislation and catalyzing broader social changes aimed at dismantling institutional racism and promoting equality for all Americans. Despite subsequent challenges, including a Supreme Court ruling in 2013 that weakened key provisions of the Act, its legacy endures as a symbol of the ongoing struggle for racial justice and the enduring importance of protecting voting rights as a cornerstone of democracy.

The End of Apartheid in South Africa

The end of apartheid in South Africa represents a watershed moment in the nation’s history, signaling a triumph over decades of institutionalized racism and oppression. Apartheid, which formally began in 1948, imposed a regime of racial segregation and discrimination, enforcing laws that systematically marginalized the majority Black population in all aspects of life. These laws included the Group Areas Act, which enforced residential segregation; the Population Registration Act, which classified individuals by race; and the infamous Pass Laws, which restricted the movement of Black people within the country. Despite the brutal repression of dissent, resistance to apartheid grew steadily, both domestically and internationally, with organizations like the African National Congress (ANC) and the international anti-apartheid movement leading the charge for change. Pressure mounted throughout the latter half of the 20th century, culminating in widespread protests, boycotts, and sanctions against the apartheid regime. The tipping point came in the early 1990s when negotiations between the government and the ANC, led by figures such as Nelson Mandela and F.W. de Klerk, led to the dismantling of apartheid laws and the release of political prisoners. In 1994, South Africa held its first fully democratic elections, with Mandela elected as the country’s first Black president. The end of apartheid marked not only the beginning of a new era of democracy and equality in South Africa but also served as an inspiration to oppressed peoples around the world, demonstrating the power of collective action and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of injustice.

Caste Reservation in India

Caste reservation, also known as affirmative action or reservation policy, in India, is a system of quotas that allocates a percentage of government jobs, educational opportunities, and legislative seats to individuals from historically marginalized castes and tribes. The reservation system was introduced to address centuries-old caste-based discrimination and social inequality prevalent in Indian society. The policy traces its roots to the Indian Constitution, which enshrined the principle of social justice and equality of opportunity. The system initially targeted Scheduled Castes (formerly known as Untouchables) and Scheduled Tribes, recognizing their historical disadvantage and systemic exclusion from mainstream society. Over time, reservation policies have expanded to include Other Backward Classes (OBCs), who also face socio-economic marginalization. The aim of caste reservation is to provide opportunities for upward mobility and representation to marginalized communities, enabling them to participate more fully in the social, economic, and political life of the country. However, the reservation system has sparked debate and controversy, with critics arguing that it perpetuates caste divisions, creates resentment among other groups, and undermines meritocracy. Nonetheless, caste reservation remains a central feature of India’s social welfare and affirmative action policies, reflecting ongoing efforts to address historical injustices and promote inclusivity and social equity.

Environmental and Economic Justice Movements

As globalization has accelerated, so too have concerns about its impacts on both the planet and people, particularly marginalized communities. Environmental justice movements have emerged to highlight the disproportionate burden of pollution, resource extraction, and climate change borne by vulnerable populations, including indigenous peoples, low-income communities, and communities of color. These movements advocate for policies and practices that prioritize sustainability, equity, and the protection of natural resources for present and future generations. Similarly, economic justice movements have rallied against the widening gap between the wealthy elite and the rest of society, exacerbated by globalization’s emphasis on deregulation, privatization, and corporate dominance. These movements call for fair wages, worker protections, and policies that address income inequality and wealth concentration. Together, these global movements seek to challenge the status quo and promote alternative visions of development that prioritize environmental stewardship, social equity, and human well-being over profit and exploitation.

Greenpeace

Greenpeace, founded in 1971, originated from a small group of activists protesting nuclear weapons testing in Alaska. Since then, it has evolved into one of the world’s most prominent environmental organizations, with a mission to “ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity.” Greenpeace employs a variety of tactics to achieve its goals, including direct action, lobbying, research, and media campaigns. It focuses on a range of environmental issues, including climate change, deforestation, ocean conservation, and renewable energy. Greenpeace’s iconic campaigns, such as the fight against whaling and the protection of rainforests, have garnered global attention and mobilized millions of supporters. However, the organization has also faced controversies over its methods and strategies. Critics have accused Greenpeace of employing sensationalism and exaggeration to advance its agenda, as well as engaging in confrontational tactics that sometimes result in legal disputes or public backlash. Additionally, debates have arisen around its funding sources and organizational transparency. Despite these controversies, Greenpeace plays a significant role in shaping environmental discourse and driving positive change worldwide.

Professor Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Movement

Professor Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Movement, founded in 1977, stands as a pioneering grassroots environmental organization in Kenya and beyond. Inspired by her deep concern for the degradation of Kenya’s natural environment and its impact on rural communities, Maathai initiated the movement with the goal of addressing deforestation, soil erosion, and poverty through tree planting and conservation efforts. The movement mobilized women in particular, empowering them with the knowledge and resources to plant trees and manage their local ecosystems sustainably. Beyond its environmental mission, the Green Belt Movement also aimed to promote democracy, human rights, and women’s empowerment, recognizing the interconnectedness of environmental and social justice issues. Despite facing opposition from political authorities at times, Maathai’s tireless advocacy and grassroots organizing efforts led to the planting of millions of trees across Kenya, revitalizing landscapes, conserving biodiversity, and providing economic opportunities for local communities. In 2004, Maathai was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her contributions to sustainable development, democracy, and peace, cementing the Green Belt Movement’s legacy as a symbol of grassroots environmental activism and empowerment.

The World Free Trade Organization (WFTO)

The World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO) traces its roots back to the 1980s, emerging from a growing movement advocating for fair and ethical trade practices. Formally established in 1989 in the Netherlands, the WFTO serves as a global network of organizations committed to promoting fair trade principles and practices. Its mission revolves around fostering equitable trading partnerships, empowering marginalized producers and workers, and advocating for social and environmental sustainability in the global marketplace. The organization sets standards and guidelines for fair trade certification, ensuring that products bearing the Fair Trade label adhere to strict criteria related to fair wages, safe working conditions, and environmental stewardship. In addition to certification, the WFTO supports capacity-building initiatives for producers, facilitates market access for fair trade products, and conducts advocacy campaigns to raise awareness about the importance of fair trade. One of its key programs is the Fair Trade Guarantee System, which provides a framework for monitoring and ensuring compliance with fair trade standards throughout the supply chain. Through its multifaceted approach, the WFTO plays a crucial role in promoting a more equitable and sustainable global trading system, empowering producers and consumers alike to make ethical choices that benefit people and the planet.

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Unit 9: Globalization

AP World History

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